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d


dv.to cookpréparer1337Acfsɨwratɨsaw
This is the generic root for 'to cook'. The devoicing of *d to *t in the Margi and Higi groups is a regular change. The Malgwa root /gʲa/ is due to a regular general process where palatalised alveolar consonants become palatalised velar consonants.1Proto-Daba*dacookpréparer1.1BuwalViljoendɑprepare (food to cook)préparer (la nourriture)1BuwalViljoendɑcook(faire) cuire, cuisiner2BuwalViljoendɑ̄ wɛ́ⁿdʒɛ̀kbake (in ashes)cuire (dans les cendres)1.2GavarViljoendɑprepare (food to cook)préparer (la nourriture)1.3MbudumNdokobaïkədudaprepare (food to cook)préparer (la nourriture)1MbudumNdokobaïkədabake (in ashes)cuire (dans les cendres)1.4DabaLienhardtàpréparer la nourriture ; éclater1DabaLienhardtàs'emploie, si on répète les paroles d'un autre, à la fin de la citation2Proto-Sukur*dɨcookpréparer2.1SukurDaviddəcook, to2.2SukurThomasdəcooking; is the general term for cooking.3Proto-Hurza*dacookpréparer3.1MbukoGravinadacookpréparer4Proto-Margi*tacookpréparer4.1BuraBlenchtaTo cook (certain foods for first time)1BuraBlenchtiTo cook4.2MargiHoffmantato cook4.3KilbaSchuhta/acook (tuwo, miya etc.)1KilbaSchuhta/aget done (food)5Proto-Mandara*dacookpréparer5.1MatalBrangermatajcookpréparer5.2PodokoSwackhammertácuire5.3MalgwaLöhrgjacook5.4GlavdaNghagyivatá káfaprepare (food to cook)6Proto-Mofu*dacookpréparer6.1OuldemeKinnairdubd stemdìprepare foodpréparer le manger6.2MuyangSmithdimake, do, cook in a pot; singpréparer; chanter6.3MadaNkoumoumédècuire (faire-, préparer de la nourriture), coucher (se-pour le soleil)6.4MolokoFriesendecookpréparer la nouriture6.5ZulgoHallerdacuire1ZulgoHallerdecuire6.6GemzekSabataimedecook (v); prepare (food to cook)(faire) cuire, cuisiner; préparer (la nourriture)6.7MereyGravinadaprepare (food to cook); cook (v)préparer; préparer (la nourriture); (faire) cuire, cuisiner6.8DugworJubumnamadajcook (v); prepare (food to cook)(faire) cuire, cuisiner; préparer (la nourriture)6.9Proto-Mofu Subgroup*tcookpréparer6.10Mofu NorthBarreteaumétēj(faire) cuire, préparer6.11Mofu-GudurHollingswortht ́(faire) cuire, préparer (un repas, un sacrifice) ; chauffer7Proto-Maroua*dicookpréparer7.1Giziga MoutourwaMichielandipréparer, cuire, cuisiner7.2Giziga MarvaHamidoudi dafprepare (food to cook)préparer (la nourriture)7.3MbazlaTourneuxdipréparer (nourriture)8Proto-Lamang*dacookpréparer8.1LamangWolffdacook9Proto-Higi*tacookpréparer9.1Kamwe-NkafaHarleytacook9.2Kamwe-FutuHarleytacook9.3KiryaBlenchtàcook9.4PsikyeAngelotakécook9.5BanaLienhardtàcuire, préparer dans l'eau ou dans beaucoup d'huile10Proto-Kotoko North*dacookpréparer10.1MpadeAllisondá (lɨ) básùroastrôtir11Proto-Kotoko South*udocookpréparer11.1MazeraAllisonudocook (v)(faire) cuire, cuisiner12Proto-Musgum*dicookpréparer12.1MulwiTourneuxdicuire (une sauce)12.2MbaraTourneuxtiicookcuire13Proto-Gidar*ɨdacookpréparer13.1GidarHungerfordɨda, ədapréparer, cuisiner, (faire) cuire
daɣɨlɨjnf.young womanjeune fille921Bcfdɨm ʸ
This word denotes a girl or young woman who is old enough to marry but is not yet married. The presence of *l in this root indicates that it may have originated within the North sub-branch of Central Chadic. Proto-Central Chadic had no *l, but this phoneme was introduced into the North sub-branch by a regular change *r to l. However, the Daba, Mafa, Sukur and Hurza groups do not belong to the North sub-branch. It is possible that the root has been borrowed into these languages, since the languages where the root is present are those with strong contact with languages of the North sub-branch. The *ɣ has become /g/ in some languages in the Higi and Sukur groups, an unestablished change. It has become /h/ in many groups. In Proto-Mandara this is a regular change, but in the Mofu group the change is irregular. Elsewhere the change is unestablished. In some cases this /h/ has been deleted. The final *j has been reanalysed as the palatalisation prosody in the Mandara and Maroua groups, as consonant palatalisation in the Higi group, and as a vowel in the Sukur, Higi and Lamang groups. These are all common sporadic changes.1Proto-Daba*dahalajgirlfille1.1GavarViljoendɑhɑlɑjyoung womanjeune fille1.2MbudumNdokobaïdalajyoung womanjeune fille2Proto-Mafa*dahlagirlfille2.1CuvokGravinadahlayoung womanjeune fille3Proto-Sukur*dɨgɨliyoung womanjeune fille3.1SukurDaviddəgəligirl, unmarried3.2SukurThomasdəgəliunmarried mature girl; is the general term for unmarried mature girl.4Proto-Hurza*dalajgirlfille4.1Mbukodalajgirlfille4.2VameKinnairddìlèdaughterfille5Proto-Mandara*dahɨlɨ ʸgirlfille5.1PodokoSwackhammerdə́həla,-əjeune fille5.2MandaraFluckigergjáálejeune fille (f)5.3MalgwaLöhrgjaalegirl, daughter1MalgwaLöhrgjalagirls6Proto-Mofu*dahɨlajgirlfille6.1OuldemeKinnairddàŋgʷàlàjgirlfille6.2MuyangSmithdɑhɑlɑja marriageable girlfille à l'âge de se marier6.3MolokoFriesendalajgirlfille6.4MereyGravinadahəlajyoung womanjeune fille,épouse6.5GemzekSabataidahəlajbridemariée1GemzekSabataidahəlajjeune fille2GemzekSabataidahəlajeune fille6.6DugworJubumnadahəlajbridemariée7Proto-Maroua*dɨlɨ ʸgirlfille7.1Giziga MoutourwaMichielandijlijeune fille7.2Giziga MarvaHamidoudilidaughterfille8Proto-Higi*diɣɨlʲigirlfille8.1Kamwe-NkafaHarleydigəljiunmarriedgirl1Kamwe-NkafaHarleydigiljíyoung-girl8.2BanaLienharddàɣàlàjeune fille9Proto-Lamang*daɣaligirlfille9.1LamangWolffdaɣelegirl, young woman9.2HdiBramlettdaɣaliyoung womanla jeune fille
daŋnm.drumtambour610(Technological Spread)cfgaᵑga
This word probably denotes an hour-glass shaped drum held under the armpit. It is most probably a root that has spread across languages with the introduction of this type of drum, with the source being somewhere in Nigeria.1Proto-Bata*daŋɨdrumtambour1.1GudeHoskinsondàŋá -əsmall hourgrass shaped drum, H. Kalangu.1.2JimiDjibidaŋənPetit tambour qui a la forme de X qui sert d'accompagnement pour les autres grands tambours.2Proto-Tera*daᵑgdrumtambour2.1NyimatliHarleydaᵑgtalking drum3Proto-Sukur*daŋdrumtambour3.1SukurDaviddaŋdrum3.2SukurThomasdaŋdrum; a musical instrument made of a hollow round frame plastic or wood and skin strretched across one or both end. Your play it by hitting it with sticks or with your hands.4Proto-Margi*daŋdrumtambour4.1BuraBlenchdaᵑgdrum with two heads4.2KilbaSchuhdaŋdrum (generic)5Proto-Mandara*deŋʷɨdrumtambour5.1PodokoSwackhammerdeŋú deŋʷé,-utam-tam à l'aisselle6Proto-Higi*daŋɨ ʸdrumtambour6.1Kamwe-NkafaHarleydàᵑgjíKind of drum.6.2Kamwe-FutuHarleydjaᵑgatalking drum6.3BanaLienharddáŋtamtam sous le bras, peau de varan, esp. de petit
dawn.milletmil47Asynhɨjɨvɨjaw
The presence of a number of different roots for this most basic of subsistence crops indicates that the Central Chadic peoples were not originally subsistence farmers. The prenasalisation of *d in Mbuko is a common but sporadic process. The root may have originated in Mafa and spread to neighbouring languages. However, the root is also found in Mbazla, which is currently not in contact with the other languages represented, and the path of contact with this language needs to be established.1Proto-Mafa*dawmilletmil1.1MafaBarreteaudawmil (nom gén.)1.2CuvokGravinadawmillet (rainy season)mil (saison de pluies)2Proto-Hurza*ⁿdawmilletmil2.1MbukoGravinaⁿdawmilletmil3Proto-Mofu*dawmilletmil3.1ZulgoHallerdawmil m.3.2GemzekSabataidawmilletmil3.3MereyGravinadawmillet (rainy season)mil (saison de pluies)4Proto-Maroua*dawmilletmil4.1MbazlaTourneuxdawmil
dɨgɨɮamdeafsourd513B
The presence of the alternate root *maⁿdɨk in several languages in the Mofu group may indicate that this root is a compound of a verb *ⁿdɨk and *ɮam 'ear' (from *ɬɨmɨɗ ʸ, but with *ɮ from the South sub-branch). The prefix *ma- is a nominaliser that was productive in earlier stages of the history of Central Chadic languages, but is no longer productive in most languages. 1Proto-Mafa*dagaɮamdeafsourd1.1MafaBarreteauńⁿdakaɮamsourd-muet1MafaNdokobaiⁿdakaɮam, ⁿdaɓaɮamsourd1.2CuvokGravinamadagaɮamdeaf person(un) sourd2Proto-Hurzadɨᵑgɨɮdeafsourd2.1MbukoGravinadɨᵑgɨɮbe deafêtre sourd1MbukoGravinamədəᵑgaɮakdeafsourd3Proto-Mandara*dagaɮamdeafsourd3.1MatalBrangermadagaɮamdeafsourd4Proto-Mofu*ma-ⁿdɨk ɮamdeafsourd4.1MadaNkoumoumadagaɮamsourd-muet4.2MolokoFriesenmadəᵑgəɮadeafnesssurdité4.3GemzekSabataimaⁿdakaɮamdeaf mutesourd-muet1GemzekSabataimaⁿdakdeaf person(un) sourd4.4MereyGravinamadəᵑgəɮaksourd-muet1MereyGravinamaⁿdəkdeaf person(un) sourd, sourd-muet4.5DugworJubumnamədeᵑgəɮadeaf person(un) sourd1DugworJubumnamaⁿdakdeaf mutesourd-muet4.6Mofu NorthBarreteaumáⁿdāksourd-muet4.7Mofu-GudurHollingsworthmadakaɮamsourd-muet1Mofu-GudurHollingsworthdəgəɮam dəgəɮamsourd5Proto-Maroua*digiɮadeafsourd5.1Giziga MoutourwaMichielandigiɬrendre sourd1Giziga MoutourwaMichielanmidigiɮasourd, muet2Giziga MoutourwaMichielanmidigiɮaignorant5.2Giziga MarvaHamidoumədigɮadeaf person; deaf mute(un) sourd; sourd-muet
dɨɣʷɨvannm.leopardpanthère513D
The general sense of the root is 'leopard', though in Dugwor, Mbazla and possibly Merey the root is part of a compound, implying that it may have a different or more generic meaning. The root itself is difficult to reconstruct. The *n to r change in the Mofu group is regular. The loss of *ɣʷ is normal, though often the labialisation component remains in some form. In the Bata group the labialisation has transferred to *v.1Proto-Bata*dɨgɨvʷaleopardléopard1.1JimiDjibidəgəvʷanLa panthère1.2SharwaGravinadigvʷapanthère, léopard1.3TsuvanJohnstondəgəvala panthère2Proto-Sukur*dɨgʷavakleopardléopard2.1SukurDaviddəgʷavakleopardléopard2.2SukurDavidduguvuhyenahyène2.3SukurThomasdəgʷavakleopard3Proto-Mofu*dɨvarleopardléopard3.1ZulgoHallerdə̀varpanthère f., léopard m.3.2GemzekSabataidəvarpanthère3.3MereyGravinadəvarpanthère1MereyGravinadəvar dzidzegeleopardléopard3.4DugworJubumnadəvar j peɬleopardléopard3.5Mofu-GudurHollingsworthdəváLéopard ("panthère")4Proto-Maroua*dɨvaŋleopardléopard4.1MbazlaTourneuxdəvaŋ garakléopard1MbazlaTourneuxdəvaŋlion5Proto-Higi*dɨɣʷavaleopardléopard5.1Kamwe-FutuHarleydəɣʷavaleopard5.2PsikyeAngeloɗəgʷavahyenahyène1PsikyeAngelodəgʷavahyenahyène5.3BanaLienhardd(ə̀)ɣʷàvàpanthère
dɨm ʸnf.girlfille410Acfdaɣɨlɨj
This word denotes a female child. The root is very stable, though the palatalisation prosody has been lost in the Sukur group. The vowel /a/ in Proto-Mafa is a regular change.1Proto-Daba*dɨmɨ ʸgirlfille1.1DabaLienhardmèdīmíla jeune fille, pas mariée2Proto-Mafa*dam ʸgirlfille2.1MafaBarreteaudámfille2.2CuvokGravinademgirl, daughter(petite) fille, fillette3Proto-Mofu*dɨm ʸgirlfille3.1ZulgoHallerdə̀mfille f.1ZulgoHallerdə̀menfant (m.) du sexe féminin3.2GemzekSabataidəmgirlfille1GemzekSabataidəm ŋadaughterfille3.3MereyGravinademfille3.4DugworJubumnademgirl(petite) fille, fillette3.5Mofu NorthBarreteaudémfille1Mofu NorthBarreteaudə́mmèeh! toi, fille!3.6Mofu-GudurHollingsworthdamdaughterfille4Proto-Sukur*dɨmgirlfille4.1SukurDaviddəmdaughter4.2SukurThomasdəmunmarried girl; is the general term for unmarried girl.
dɨrv.to burnbruler510A
This word denotes the complete burning of an object until it becomes ash. All of the groups represented except the Mafa group are from the North sub-branch, and we would expect to find *l rather than *r in these languages. However there are exceptions in the Mandara and Lamang groups, which may be due to a later unestablihsed change from *l to /r/. The change *r to l in Cuvok is a regular feature of the language, as is the change *l to r in Moloko.1Proto-Mafa*ⁿdarburnbruler1.1MafaBarreteauⁿdár-brûler (faire du charbon de bois, cuire)1.2CuvokGravinaⁿdalaburnbrûler2Proto-Mandara*dɨrɨburnbrûler2.1MandaraFluckigerdérébrûler (brûler complètement), carboniser3Proto-Mofu*dɨlburnbruler3.1OuldemeKinnairdubd stemdālājburnbrûler plusieurs fois1OuldemeKinnairdubd stemdə̄lburnbrûler2OuldemeKinnairdubd stemdə̄lcuire la poterie3.2MolokoFriesendarburn, grilluntil it becomes ash for making potash and pottery; jusqu'à ce que ça deveiens du cendre pour faire la potasse (wuhle) et la potérie.1MolokoFriesendarto get on someone's nervesénerver quelqu'un3.3ZulgoHallerdúlbrûler, être consommé, prendre feu3.4Mofu-GudurHollingsworth́ⁿdəlbrûler sur le feu, consumer entièrement jusqu'à réduire en cendre (sur le feu) ; cuir les poteries4Proto-Maroua*dɨlɨ ʸburnbruler4.1MbazlaTourneuxⁿdilibruler1MbazlaSILSurveydílíburn (transitive)brûler (transitif)5Proto-Lamang*dɨraburnbruler5.1LamangWolffdraburn5.2HdiBramlettdərajto burnbrûler
dɨrɨmnf.animal horncorne d'un animal826Csynlaganmahʷaᵐbɨkʷɨm
This root poses some interesting problems in reconstruction. The change *d to t in the Margi and Higi groups is regular. We also expect to find *r becoming *l in all groups except for Mafa and Sukur. However there are exceptions in the Mandara, Mofu and Maroua groups. The Mafa and Mofu data indicate that there are two cognate roots interfering, with *dɨrɨm being the horn of an animal, and *tɨlɨm being an animal horn used as a musical instrument. Another difficulty is the presence of labialisation in many of the groups. The change *m to /w/ in the Mandara group is regular, and in the Lamang group is a common sporadic change. However we also have labialisation in the Mafa, Sukur, Maroua and Higi groups that has not come from *m. In the Maroua group this is a common sporadic change, but the present reconstruction does not account for the introduction of labialisation in the other groups.1Proto-Mafa*dɨram ʷhorncorne1.1MafaBarreteautolomcorne (animal) utilisé pour faire la musique1MafaBarreteaudúrómcorne d'animal1.2CuvokGravinadəremhorncorne1.3MefeleCrawforddərumhorncorne2Proto-Sukur*twamhorncorne2.1SukurThomastwamhorn; a hard pointed part that grow usually in pairs, on the heads of some animals, eg cow, sheep and goats.3Proto-Margi*tɨlɨmhorncorne3.1BuraBlenchtiᵐbulHorn of an animal3.2KilbaSchuhtələmhorn4Proto-Mandara*dɨrɨmahorncorne4.1MatalBrangerdraw, dərawhorncorne4.2PodokoSwackhammerdərawa,-ə 1corne4.3MandaraFluckigerdermácorne (f)4.4MalgwaLöhrdərmehorn4.5GlavdaOwensdəráhorn1GlavdaNghagyivadràwahorn4.6DghwedeFrickdərawahorn5Proto-Mofu*dɨramhorncorne5.1MuyangSmithedremtusk ; horncorne5.2MadaNkoumoudràmcorne d'animal5.3MereyGravinadəramcorne5.4DugworJubumnadəromhorncorne5.5Mofu NorthBarreteautəlamcorne (de buffle ou en bois)1Mofu NorthBarreteautālāmcorne (de buffle ou en bois)5.6Mofu-GudurHollingsworthtəlamcorne à souffler (de buffle ou en bois)6Proto-Maroua*dɨrɨm ʷhorncorne6.1Giziga MoutourwaMichielandurumcorne, = marta: corne tabatière (tapa ngi zi'iñ)1Giziga MoutourwaMichielandrumcorne6.2Giziga MarvaHamidouduromhorncorne6.3MbazlaTourneuxdurumcorne1MbazlaSILSurveydùrūmhorncorne7Proto-Lamang*dulihorncorne7.1LamangWolffdulihorn7.2HdiBramlettdulihornla corne8Proto-Higi*tɨlimʷɨhorncorne8.1Kamwe-NkafaHarleytərmʷihorn8.2Kamwe-FutuHarleytərimohorn (of animal); ivory8.3BanaLienhardtə̀lìmə̀corne
dzagʷanf.hatchapeau1021A
This root is found in almost all groups of the North sub-branch of Central Chadic, but in none of the groups of the South sub-branch. This is not known to be a borrowed root, and so may be a Central Chadic root, originating in Proto-Central Chadic North. The original type of hat could have been straw, cloth or leather. There is some variation between /gʷ/ and /kʷ/, and in the vocalisation patterns, and these changes are unestablished.1Proto-Hurza*dzɨgʷahatchapeau1.1MbukoGravinadʒugohatchapeau1.2VameKinnairddzúgēhelmetbonnet2Proto-Margi*dzakʷahatchapeau2.1BuraBlenchdzakʷaHat; cap or soft hat3Proto-Mandara*dzakʷɨhatchapeau3.1MatalBrangerdzakʷahatchapeau3.2PodokoSwackhammerdzakʷa,-uchapeau3.3MandaraFluckigerdzakʷébonnet (m)3.4GlavdaNghagyivad͡zákʷahat4Proto-Mofu*dzagʷɨhatchapeau4.1OuldemeKinnairddzàgùhatchapeau4.2MuyangSmithdʒɑkuhat made of clothchapeau4.3MolokoFriesendʒogohatchapeau; bonnet4.4MereyGravinadzagʷachapeau1MereyGravinadzakʷabonnet ou chapeau4.5DugworJubumnadʒiggohatchapeau4.6Mofu-GudurHollingsworthdʒikʷewbonnet5Proto-Maroua*dzakʷɨhatchapeau5.1Giziga MoutourwaMichielandʒijkuchapeau5.2Giziga MarvaHamidoudʒokohatchapeau6Proto-Lamang*dzɨgʷahatchapeau6.1LamangWolffdzoŋohat6.2HdiBramlettdzugʷaleather hatle chapeau de cuir7Proto-Kotoko Island*ⁿdzakʷahatchapeau7.1BudumaMcKoneⁿdʒokʷahatchapeau7.2BudumaMcKoneⁿdʒokʷabonnet (n : [njakwa]).8Proto-Kotoko North*sagʷahatchapeau8.1MpadeAllisonságʷáhatchapeau9Proto-Kotoko South*dzakʷɨhatchapeau9.1ZinaOddendʒàkúhatchapeau10Proto-Musgum*zagawhatchapeau10.1VulumTourneuxzagawbonnet
dzajv.to bitemordre514synhʷɨpɨɗ
This root is largely stable, with the only change being the unestablished change *dz to /ts/ in the Daba and Maroua groups. The final *j is realised as the palatalisation prosody in the Mafa, Mandara and Maroua groups, which is a common sporadic process. The Proto-Daba root is prenasalised, which is also a common sporadic process.1Proto-Daba*ntsabitemordre1.1BuwalViljoenŋtʃɑbite (v)mordre1BuwalViljoenŋtʃɑgnawronger2BuwalViljoenŋtʃɑstingpiquer1.2GavarViljoenŋtsɑbite (v)mordre1GavarViljoenŋtsɑstingpiquer1.3DabaLienhardᵑgàtʃmordre, tourmenter, aboyer2Proto-Mafa*dza ʸbitemordre2.1MafaNdokobain dʒemordre1MafaBarreteaudʒ-mordre3Proto-Mandara*dza ʸbitemordre3.1MatalBrangermatsajbitemordre3.2PodokoSwackhammerⁿdʒewé 1mordre3.3MalgwaLöhrdʒabite, beat (with stick)3.4DghwedeFrickⁿdzaxabite4Proto-Mofu*dzajbitemordre4.1OuldemeKinnairdmātsājmordre, piquer plusieurs fois4.2ZulgoHallerdze(-r)mordre4.3GemzekSabataidzajbite (v)mordre1GemzekSabataia dzajmordre2GemzekSabataimedzestrike (snake)mordre, piquer (serpent)4.4Mofu NorthBarreteaumézèjmordre1Mofu NorthBarreteaumézèjpiquer (serpent)4.5Mofu-GudurHollingsworth́zmordre, piquer (serpent)5Proto-Maroua*tsɨ ʸbitemordre5.1MbazlaTourneuxtʃimordre
dzarajnm.locustcriquet migrateur922Acfhaɗikʷ
This word denotes the locust, known well in the region for appearing periodically in huge swarms and devastating crops. The change *dz to /z/ in Gidar is regular, as is the change *r to *l in the groups of the North sub-branch, though the Mofu, Maroua and Gidar groups do not show this change. The final *j has been reanalysed as the palatalisation prosody in the Daba group, and possibly in the Tera group, which is a common sporadic process. 1Proto-Daba*dzara ʸlocustlocuste1.1BuwalViljoendʒerelocustlocuste, criquet1.2GavarViljoendʒerilocustlocuste, criquet1.3MbudumNdokobaïdʒerelocustlocuste, criquet2Proto-Mafa*dzarajlocustlocuste2.1MafaNdokobaidzarajcriquet2.2CuvokGravinadʒarajlocustlocuste, criquet3Proto-Tera*ⁿdzerelocustlocuste3.1NyimatliHarleyʒoolalocustcriquet1NyimatliHarleyⁿdʒerecricket4Proto-Sukur*dzalajlocustcriquet migrateur4.1SukurThomasdzalailocust; an insect that lives in hot countries and flies in lage groups, destroying and the plants and crops of an area.5Proto-Hurza*dzarajlocustlocuste5.1MbukoGravinadzarajlocustcriquet migrateur5.2VameKinnairddzùràjcricketcriquets qui se déplacent en grands nombres qui dévastent la récolte.6Proto-Mofu*dzarajlocustlocuste6.1OuldemeKinnairddzàràjlocust, grasshoppersauterelle, locuste, criquet migrateur6.2MuyangSmithdʒɑrɑjPlague Locustlocuste migratoire, criquet6.3MadaNkoumoudʒaracriquet migrateur (criquet pélérin)6.4MolokoFriesendʒarajlocustcriquet; sauterelle6.5ZulgoHallerdzarásauterelle f. sp.6.6GemzekSabataidzarasauterelle6.7MereyGravinadzarajlocustlocuste, criquet migrateur6.8Mofu NorthBarreteaudzārājcriquet migrateur6.9Mofu-GudurHollingsworthdʒárajcriquet migrateur (dévastateur des plantes)7Proto-Maroua*dzarajlocustlocuste7.1Giziga MoutourwaMichielandʒarajcriquets pèlerins dévasteurs8Proto-Higi*dzalajlocustlocuste8.1Kamwe-FutuHarleydzalalocustcriquet8.2BanaLienharddʒìrcriquet migrateur9Proto-Gidar*zarajlocustcriquet migrateur9.1GidarHungerfordzarajcriquet, sauterelle
dzavɨnnf.guinea fowlpintade1749B
Although this is one of the most widely attested roots in Central Chadic, the reconstruction presents some difficulties. The initial *dz is only retained in two groups. It is realised as *ts in five groups and as *z in ten groups. Only in the Gidar and Kotoko Centre groups is this change regular. *dz is preferred for the reconstruction as being the most likely to produce the other two realisations. The *v is realised as *f in Kotoko North (a regular change), as *b in the Sukur and Mandara groups (an unestablished change), and as *p in the Mafa group (also an unestablished change). The *n is realised as *r in the Margi, Mandara and Mofu groups, which is a regular change. The labialisation in the Bata and Maroua groups is a sporadic innovation, as is the palatalisation in the Tera, Mandara and Musgum groups.1Proto-Bata*zavʷɨnguineafowlpintade1.1GudeHoskinsonzòovə̀náguinea fowl1.2JimiDjibizavʷənənPintade1.3SharwaGravinazavunəpintade1.4TsuvanJohnstonzavənkənla pintade2Proto-Daba*zavɨnguineafowlpintade2.1BuwalViljoenzɑvɑnguinea fowlpintade2.2GavarViljoenzɑvənguinea fowlpintade2.3MbudumNdokobaïzavaŋguinea fowlpintade2.4DabaLienhardzàvə́nla pintade3Proto-Mafa*zapanguineafowlpintade3.1MafaBarreteauzápánpintade3.2CuvokGravinazapaŋguinea fowlpintade4Proto-Tera*tsivanguineafowlpintade4.1TeraNewmantʃivanguinea-fowlpintade4.2NyimatliHarleyʃivanguinea fowlpintade5Proto-Sukur*zabɨnguinea fowlpintade5.1SukurDavidzabənguineafowlpintade5.2SukurThomaszabənguineafowl; is the general term for guinea fowl; it has dark grey feathers with white spots. There are two types of guineafowls: demostic and bush guineafowls.6Proto-Hurza*zavɨnguineafowlpintade6.1MbukoGravinanzavanguinea fowlpintade6.2VameKinnairdsàvnàkpartridgepintade7Proto-Margi*tsɨvɨrguineafowlpintade7.1MargiHoffmantsəvərguinea-fowlpintade7.2KilbaSchuhtsəvərguinea fowlpintade7.3BuraBlenchtsə̀və́raGuinea fowl8Proto-Mandara*zabɨra ʸguineafowlpintade8.1MatalBrangerzavərguineafowlpintade8.2PodokoSwackhammerzaᵐbəra,-apintade8.3MandaraFluckigerʒábèrápintade (f)8.4MalgwaLöhrʒebreguinea fowlpintade8.5GlavdaNghagyivaʒàbɾaguinea fowlpintade1GlavdaOwensžeebguinea fowlpintade2GlavdaOwenszabəguinea fowlpintade9Proto-Mofu*dzavɨrguineafowlpintade9.1OuldemeKinnairdzàvàrguinea fowlpintade9.2MuyangSmithdʒɑvɑrguinea fowlpintade9.3MadaNkoumouzàvàrpintade9.4MolokoFriesendʒavarguinea fowlpintade9.5ZulgoHallerⁿdzávə́rpintade f.9.6GemzekSabataiⁿdzavarguinea fowlpintade9.7MereyGravinaⁿdzavarguinea fowlpintade9.8DugworJubumnaⁿdʒavarguinea fowlpintade9.9Mofu NorthBarreteauⁿdzàvárpintade1Mofu NorthBarreteauⁿdzávárpintade9.10Mofu-GudurHollingsworthtsavárpintade (Mokong)1Mofu-GudurHollingsworthtsavárpintade (Mokong)2Mofu-GudurHollingsworthⁿdʒavárpintade commune (Gudur)10Proto-Maroua*tsɨvɨn ʷguineafowlpintade10.1Giziga MoutourwaMichielantʃuvuŋpintade10.2Giziga MarvaHamidoutʃuvonguinea fowlpintade10.3MbazlaTourneuxtʃufuŋpintade11Proto-Lamang*zɨvɨnguineafowlpintade11.1HdiBramlettzəvnəkguinea henla pintade12Proto-Higi*zivɨnguineafowlpintade12.1Kamwe-NkafaHarleyzəvənəguinea fowlpintade12.2Kamwe-FutuHarleyzivənoguinea fowlpintade12.3BanaLienhardzə̀və́nìpintade13Proto-Kotoko North*tsafanguineafowlpintade13.1AfadeAllisontsɨfan; gɨdɨgoguinea fowlpintade13.2MpadeAllisonsafanguinea fowlpintade13.3MalgbeAllisonsafanguinea fowlpintade13.4MaltamAllisonsafanguinea fowlpintade14Proto-Kotoko Centre*zavanguineafowlpintade14.1LagwanAllisonzavanguinea fowlpintade14.2MserAllisonsavanguinea fowlpintade15Proto-Kotoko South*dzavaŋguineafowlpintade15.1MazeraAllisondʒavaŋguinea fowlpintade16Proto-Musgum*tsaavan ʸguineafowlpintade16.1MbaraTourneuxtʃeeveŋhelmet guinea-fowlpintade17Proto-Gidar*zamvɨnaguinea fowlpintade17.1GidarHungerfordzamvənapintade17.2GidarSchuhsamvəna/apintade17.3GidarHungerfordzafʼnapintade
dzɨdzɨ ʸnm.grandfathergrand-père817A
The initial *dz has the reflex *ts in Proto-Hurza and Proto-Margi, which is an unestablished change in both cases. In Proto-Mandara both *dz have become *d, also an unestablished change. The palatalisation prosody is supported by the data from all the groups. In the Mandara group, the palatalisation prosody has effected the *d. This was followed by a regular change where palatalised alveolars become palatalised velars, resulting in *dʲ→gʲ. In Mbuko and Sukur, the reflex of the root is not reduplicated, but other material has been added.1Proto-Bata*dzɨdzɨ ʸgrandfathergradn-père1.1GudeHoskinsondzə̀dzə̀1GudeHoskinsondzə̀dzə̀grandfather, grandfather's male sibling or cousin.1.2JimiDjibidzədzənGrand-père ; les enfants appellent leur grand-père "dzedza" comme lui aussi les appelle de la même façon.1.3SharwaGravinadʒidʒəgrandpère1.4TsuvanJohnstondzədzegrand-père2Proto-Daba*dzadzɨ ʸgrandfathergrand-père2.1BuwalViljoendʒedʒegrandparentgrand-parent2.2GavarViljoendʒedʒigrandparentgrand-parent3Proto-Sukur*dzɨkʷɨ ʸgrandfathergrand-père3.1SukurThomasdʒikugrand father:- father to your father or to your mother.4Proto-Hurza*tsɨdza ʸgrandfathergrand-père4.1MbukoGravinabidʒegrandfathergrand-père4.2VameKinnairdtʃèdʒégrandfather ; grandadgrand-parents5Proto-Margi*tsɨdzɨ ʸgrandfathergrand-père5.1MargiHoffmantʃidʒigrandparent5.2Margi SouthHarleytʃidʒigrandparent5.3KilbaSchuhadʒigrandchild, grandparent6Proto-Mandara*dɨdɨ ʸgrandfathergrand-père6.1MandaraFluckigeréggjegrand-père, grand-mère, petit(s) fils/fille1MandaraFluckigereggjáájegrand-parent (m)(fam.)6.2MalgwaLöhrəggjegrandparents7Proto-Lamang*dzidzigrandfathergrand-père7.1LamangWolffdzidzigrandfather7.2HdiBramlettdzidzigrandfatherle grand-père8Proto-Higi*dzʲɨdzʲɨgrandfathergrand-père8.1BanaLienharddʒìdʒìgrand-père
dzɨgʷɨrn.humpbosse1018C
This root denotes the hump on a zebu cow, and is used by extension for a human hunchback. It is found almost exclusively in the languages of the North sub-branch. It may have come into Central Chadic from an old form of the Kanuri zugure, or the transmission may have been in the opposite direction. If the root did come from Kanuri, the back vowels were reanalysed as labialisation of the /g/. Given the widespread distribution of the root, and evidence that the early Central Chadic peoples were cattle-herders, it seems more probable that the root spread from Central Chadic to Kanuri, though the forms in Musgum and some of the Kotoko groups may be due to borrowing the more recent form of the Kanuri word. Two groups have *ɗ as the initial consonant, possibly reflecting the arrival of the same root but from a different source.1Proto-Dabaɗɨgʷɨr ʸhumpbosse1.1MbudumNdokobaïɗiᵑgirhump (of cow)bosse (de vache)1.2GavarViljoenɗəᵑgurhumpbosse1.3BuwalViljoenɗəgʷarhumpbosse2Proto-Teraɗɨgʷɨlhumpbosse2.1NyimatliHarleyɗugulhumpbosse3Proto-Sukur*dzɨgʷɨɗ ʸhumpbosse3.1SukurDaviddʒiguɗhump, of cow3.2SukurThomasdʒiguɗhump, a large lump at the back of animals, specially camel, cow4Proto-Hurza*dzɨgʷarhumpbosse4.1MbukoGravinamədzəgarcow humpbosse (f) d'un boeuf4.2VameKinnairdhʷádègʷàrhump of a cowbosse de boeuf5Proto-Margi*dzikʷɨr ʸ, madagarahumpbosse5.1BuraBlenchmadagaraStooped, hump-backed1BuraBlenchmadakaraStooped, hump-backed. See madagara2BuraBlenchdʒukurBump or hump of a cow3BuraBlenchdʒikurHump on cattle6Proto-Mofu*madzɨgɨr, mɨtakʷarhumpbosse6.1MolokoFriesenmətokorhump on an animal or personbosse d'un animal ou d'une personne6.2ZulgoHallermádzə̀gə̀rbosse (f.) d'un animal6.3GemzekSabataimadzəgarhump (of hunchback)bosse1GemzekSabataimadzəgarbump (n)bosse2GemzekSabataimadzəgarhump (of cow)bosse (de vache)6.4MereyGravinamadzəgarhump (of hunchback)bosse6.5Mofu NorthBarreteaumádzə̀gàrbosse (de zébu)7Proto-Kotoko North*sɨgʷɨrehumpbosse7.1MpadeAllisonsúgùréhump (of cow)bosse (de vache)7.2MalgbeAllisonsɨgbɨrehump (of cow)bosse (de vache)1MalgbeAllisonsɨgbɨrehump (of hunchback)bosse8Proto-Kotoko Centre*zɨrkʼʷahumpbosse8.1LagwanAllisonzurkʼʷahump (of cow)bosse (de vache)9Proto-Kotoko South*dzaŋkʷarahumpbosse9.1MazeraAllisondʒaŋkʷarahump (of cow)bosse (de vache)10Proto-Musgum*zɨgʷɨrijhumpbosse10.1MulwiTourneuxzuguriibosse de la vache11Kanurizúgùrè //// tsúgurēhump (of cow)bosse (de vache)
dzɨmɨkʷ ʸnm.porcupineporc-épic815Bcftsɨhʷɨɗ ʸ
This is the most widely-attested root for 'porcupine'. It may be an innovation in Proto-Central Chadic South, since it is found in at least four of the five groups within the South sub-branch of Central Chadic, and in few other languages. The final consonant is *n in the Daba group, and a glottal stop in the Bata group. The final consonant may be an historic noun suffix which is no longer productive. The *m is sporadically realised as /ᵐb/ in the Mafa, Mofu and Lamang groups. There is support for the palatalisation prosody from all groups except the isolated instances in Podoko and Mofu-Gudur. In Hdi it is frozen into the vowel system, and in the Higi group it is realised as a palatalised laminal consonant. The *dz has reflexes /d/, /z/ and /ts/. There is not enough data to identify these as regular changes in any of these groups, though Proto-Bata and Proto-Lamang have the related change *ts→t, and Proto-Higi has the analogous devoicing of *d to t.1Proto-Bata*dɨmaʔa ʸporcupineporc-épic1.1GudeHoskinsondə̀mə̀jáporcupine1.2SharwaGravinadimaʼaporc-épic1.3TsuvanJohnstondimaʼale porc-épic2Proto-Daba*zɨmɨn ʸporcupineporc-épic2.1BuwalViljoenzəmeŋporcupineporc-épic2.2GavarViljoenʒimɑmporcupineporc-épic2.3MbudumNdokobaïzeᵐbəŋporcupineporc-épic2.4DabaLienhardzàᵐbánle porc-épic3Proto-Mafa*dɨᵐbakʷ ʸporcupineporc-épic3.1MafaBarreteaudiᵐbekporc-épic3.2CuvokGravinadəᵐbekʷporcupineporc-épic1CuvokGravinadəᵐbəkʷpor-épick4Proto-Sukur*dzɨmɨk ʸporcupineporc-épic4.1SukurDaviddʒiməkporcupineporc-épic4.2SukurThomasdʒiməkporcupine; an animals covered with long stiff parts like needles which it can raise to protect itself when it is attacked. it usually live in a rocks.5Proto-Mandara*dɨᵐbɨkɨporcupineporc-épic5.1PodokoSwackhammerdɨ́ᵐbɨke,-əporc-épic6Proto-Mofu*damdzakʷporcupineporc-épic6.1Mofu-GudurHollingsworthdám-jakʷporc-épic sp.7Proto-Lamang*diᵐbikʷporcupineporc-épic7.1HdiBramlettdiᵐbikʷporcupinele porc-épic8Proto-Higi*tsʲɨmɨkʷporcupineporc-épic8.1KiryaBlenchtʃìmə́húporcupineporc-épic8.2BanaLienhardtʃìmə́kə́porc-épic
dzɨvajn.tombtombeau613A
The word denotes the hole in which a body is buried, which may be a vertical hole leading to a small chamber and covered with a rock. The *dz has undergone the unestablished change to /ts/ in Daba and some Mofu group languages, and to /z/ in the Maroua group. The *j has been reanalysed as the palatalisation prosody in the Daba and Maroua groups, which is a common sporadic change. The range of use of the root implies an origin in the Mandara Mountains, and may reflect an ancient Daba-Mafa practice.1Proto-Daba*tsɨvɨʔ ʸgravetombeau1.1DabaLienhardtʃìvīʼla tombe2Proto-Mafa*dzɨvajgravetombeau2.1MafaNdokobaidzavajtombeau2.2CuvokGravinadʒəvajgravetombe, tombeau3Proto-Hurza*dzɨvajgravetombeau3.1MbukoGravinadʒəvajtombtombeau4Proto-Mandara*dzɨvajtombtombeau4.1MatalBrangerzəvajgravetombe4.2PodokoSwackhammerdʒúve,-itombeau5Proto-Mofu*dzɨvajtombtombeau5.1ZulgoHallerdìvetombeau m.5.2GemzekSabataidzəvala tombe5.3MereyGravinatsəvajtombe5.4Mofu NorthBarreteauɗ[i tsə̀vàjtombe (cou)5.5Mofu-GudurHollingsworth́tsəvajtombe6Proto-Maroua*zɨvɨ ʸgravetombeau6.1Giziga MoutourwaMichielanzivitombe6.2Giziga MarvaHamidouzivegravetombe, tombeau
dzɨvɨ ʸn.armbras414Csynhɨrapaɮa
This root is found in the south-west of the Central Chadic area. Evidence for the palatalisation prosody comes only from the Bata group. The *dz is realised as /ts/ or /t/ in the Bata group, and as /d/ or /r/ in the Mandara group. There is a regular change *d to /r/ within the Mandara group, but only in intervocalic position. The other changes are unestablished.1Proto-Bata*tsɨvɨ ʸarmbras1.1BataBoydtɨ̀fehand1.2GudeHoskinsontʃíinə(inher. poss., body part) hand, arm.1.3JimiDjibitʃijənMain ; c'est un mot qui sert aussi à montrer d'autres parties de la main :1.4SharwaGravinativibras, main1.5TsuvanJohnstontʃəvela main, le bras2Proto-Mandara*dɨvaarmbras2.1MandaraFluckigerérvabras (m), main (f)2.2MalgwaLöhrərvahand2.3GlavdaOwensdə́hand1GlavdaNghagyivadɨ̀vaarm2GlavdaNghagyivadɨ̀vahand2.4DghwedeFrickdəvaarm, hand3Proto-Lamang*dzɨvɨwarmbras3.1LamangWolffdzə̀vòhand3.2HdiBramlettdzəvuhandla main4Proto-Higi*dzɨvɨarmbras4.1Kamwe-FutuHarleydziɓəhand4.2PsikyeAngelodzəvəhand4.3BanaLienharddə̀və̀main
dzɨwɨɗ ʸnf/mflymouche1744A
This well-attested root is found in all groups except for the Tera group. There is support for the palatalisation prosody across the reconstructions of the forms of the group proto-languages. In many cases there is the common change *ɗ to /j/ under palatalization. In Proto-Bata *ɗ has been reduced to *ʔ, and in Proto-Kotoko North it has fused with *dz to form the ejective *tsʼ. Both of these are common sporadic changes. The *dz is variously realised as /d/, /z/, /ts/. The changes in Proto-Margi, Proto-Musgum and Proto-Kotoko Centre are regular, but the rest are unestablished. The *w has been lost in Proto-Bata, Proto-Margi and Proto-Gidar, which is a common sporadic change.1Proto-Bata*dzɨʔɨ ʸflymouche1.1BataBoyddʒittofly1.2GudeHoskinsondʒì ʼ í́lácow fly.1.3JimiDjibidʒiʼinMouche1.4SharwaGravinadʒiʼimouche2Proto-Daba*dzɨwɨɗ ʸflymouche2.1BuwalViljoendʒedʒəweɗfly (n)mouche2.2GavarViljoendʒiwiɗfly (n)mouche2.3MbudumNdokobaïdʒidʒiwəɗfly (n)mouche2.4DabaLienhardtʃèdīla mouche3Proto-Mafa*dzɨwajflymouche3.1MafaBarreteaudzúwájmouche4Proto-Sukur*dzɨwɨɗ ʸflymouche4.1SukurDaviddʒuwiflymouche4.2SukurThomasdʒuifly;- general term for flies.5Proto-Hurza*dzɨwajflymouche5.1MbukoGravinadzuwajflymouche5.2VameKinnairddzùwàjflymouche6Proto-Margitsɨɗɨ ʸflymouche6.1MargiHoffmantʃiɗiflymouche6.2KilbaSchuhtʃəɗifly (n)mouche6.3BuraBlenchtʃiriGeneral name for the fly and bee group of insectsmouche7Proto-Mandara*ⁿdzɨwɨɗ ʸflymouche7.1MatalBrangerzwaj, zəwaj, zuwajflymouche7.2PodokoSwackhammerⁿdʒəwe,-əmouche7.3MandaraFluckigerⁿdʒáŋʷámouche (f), espèce (sens figuré)7.4MalgwaLöhrⁿdʒəŋʷaflymouche7.5GlavdaOwensnğuflymouche1GlavdaNghagyivand͡ʒùjafly (n)mouche8Proto-Mofu*dzɨwajflymouche8.1OuldemeKinnairdzùwàjflymouche8.2MuyangSmithezʉwihouse fly; flymouche1MuyangSmithezʉwidummy opponent in a gameadversaire imaginaire dans un jeu de société8.3MolokoFriesendʒəwajflymouche1MolokoFriesendʒəwaj8.4ZulgoHallerdzìwemouche f.8.5GemzekSabataidzuwefly (n)mouche8.6MereyGravinadzuwajfly (n)mouche8.7DugworJubumnadʒuwajfly (n)mouche8.8Mofu NorthBarreteaudzùwájmouche8.9Mofu-GudurHollingsworth́dʒadʒəwajmouche (nom gén.)9Proto-Maroua*dzɨdzɨwɨɗ ʸflymouche9.1Giziga MoutourwaMichielandʒidʒiwiɗ(i)mouche1Giziga MoutourwaMichielandʒidʒiwiɗ(i)abeille9.2Giziga MarvaHamidoudʒidʒiweɗfly (n)mouche10Proto-Lamang*ziwɗiflymouche10.1LamangWolffziɗifly10.2HdiBramlettziɗikʷflyla mouche11Proto-Higi*zʲɨwiɗflymouche11.1Kamwe-FutuHarleyʒiwifly (insect); houseflymouche11.2KiryaBlenchʒéwhouseflymouche11.3BanaLienhardʒíɓ(i)mouche12Proto-Kotoko Island*hadzuflymouche12.1BudumaMcKonehâdʒumouche.13Proto-Kotoko North*tsʼɨwiflymouche13.1AfadeAllisontsɨwifly (n)mouche13.2MaltamAllisonsʼiwifly (n)mouche14Proto-Kotoko Centre*zɨwiɗflymouche14.1LagwanAllisonzufly (n)mouche14.2MserAllisonmsʼɨwifly (n)mouche15Proto-Kotoko South*dzadzwiflymouche15.1ZinaOddendʒàdʒwìfly (n)mouche16Proto-Musgum*dɨwajflymouche16.1VulumTourneuxaduwajmouche16.2MbaraTourneuxtuwajfly (insect)mouche17Proto-Gidar*zɨkɗa ʸflymouche17.1GidarHungerfordzikɗemouche17.2GidarSchuhzikɗe/emouche
dzɨwɨn ʸnf.elephantéléphant513Asyngɨwɨnᵐbɨlala ʸnɨvi
This root is one of several roots for elephant. It is possible cognate with *gɨwɨn, but the two roots would have developed along very different paths. The change *dz→ts in Proto-Margi and Proto-Higi is not known as a regular change, though Proto-Margi did have the change *z→s. There was a regular change *n→r in word-final position in the Margi-Mandara-Mofu major group. There is support for the palatalization prosody in all groups.1Proto-Bata*dzɨwɨnɨ ʸelephantéléphant1.1GudeHoskinsontʃóonà -əelephant1.2JimiDjibidʒuunənEléphant2Proto-Tera*dzɨwan ʸelephantéléphant2.1TeraNewmandʒuwanelephant2.2NyimatliHarleyʒuwanelephant2.3GaʼandaGwajitʃhuwenaelephant3Proto-Sukur*dzɨwan ʸelephantéléphant3.1SukurDaviddʒuwanelephant3.2SukurThomasdʒiwanelephant; a large animal with thick grey skin, large ears, two curved teeth called tusk and long nose called trunk.4Proto-Margi*tsɨwar ʸelephantéléphant4.1BuraBlenchtʃiwarThe elephant4.2MargiHoffmantʃuwarelephant4.3Margi SouthHarleytʃiwarelephant5Proto-Higi*tsʲɨwɨnelephantéléphant5.1Kamwe-NkafaHarleytʃhiwəelephant5.2Kamwe-FutuHarleytʃhiweelephant5.3KiryaBlenchtʃùúnə́elephant5.4BanaLienhardtʃìwə̀éléphant


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ɓ
d
dz
ɗ
f
g
gʷ
ɣ
ɣʷ
h
hʷ
i
ɨ
j
k
kʷ
ɬ
ɮ
m
ᵐb
n
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ᵑg
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ts
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z

d


dv.to cookpréparer1337Acfsɨwratɨsaw
This is the generic root for 'to cook'. The devoicing of *d to *t in the Margi and Higi groups is a regular change. The Malgwa root /gʲa/ is due to a regular general process where palatalised alveolar consonants become palatalised velar consonants.1Proto-Daba*dacookpréparer1.1BuwalViljoendɑprepare (food to cook)préparer (la nourriture)1BuwalViljoendɑcook(faire) cuire, cuisiner2BuwalViljoendɑ̄ wɛ́ⁿdʒɛ̀kbake (in ashes)cuire (dans les cendres)1.2GavarViljoendɑprepare (food to cook)préparer (la nourriture)1.3MbudumNdokobaïkədudaprepare (food to cook)préparer (la nourriture)1MbudumNdokobaïkədabake (in ashes)cuire (dans les cendres)1.4DabaLienhardtàpréparer la nourriture ; éclater1DabaLienhardtàs'emploie, si on répète les paroles d'un autre, à la fin de la citation2Proto-Sukur*dɨcookpréparer2.1SukurDaviddəcook, to2.2SukurThomasdəcooking; is the general term for cooking.3Proto-Hurza*dacookpréparer3.1MbukoGravinadacookpréparer4Proto-Margi*tacookpréparer4.1BuraBlenchtaTo cook (certain foods for first time)1BuraBlenchtiTo cook4.2MargiHoffmantato cook4.3KilbaSchuhta/acook (tuwo, miya etc.)1KilbaSchuhta/aget done (food)5Proto-Mandara*dacookpréparer5.1MatalBrangermatajcookpréparer5.2PodokoSwackhammertácuire5.3MalgwaLöhrgjacook5.4GlavdaNghagyivatá káfaprepare (food to cook)6Proto-Mofu*dacookpréparer6.1OuldemeKinnairdubd stemdìprepare foodpréparer le manger6.2MuyangSmithdimake, do, cook in a pot; singpréparer; chanter6.3MadaNkoumoumédècuire (faire-, préparer de la nourriture), coucher (se-pour le soleil)6.4MolokoFriesendecookpréparer la nouriture6.5ZulgoHallerdacuire1ZulgoHallerdecuire6.6GemzekSabataimedecook (v); prepare (food to cook)(faire) cuire, cuisiner; préparer (la nourriture)6.7MereyGravinadaprepare (food to cook); cook (v)préparer; préparer (la nourriture); (faire) cuire, cuisiner6.8DugworJubumnamadajcook (v); prepare (food to cook)(faire) cuire, cuisiner; préparer (la nourriture)6.9Proto-Mofu Subgroup*tcookpréparer6.10Mofu NorthBarreteaumétēj(faire) cuire, préparer6.11Mofu-GudurHollingswortht ́(faire) cuire, préparer (un repas, un sacrifice) ; chauffer7Proto-Maroua*dicookpréparer7.1Giziga MoutourwaMichielandipréparer, cuire, cuisiner7.2Giziga MarvaHamidoudi dafprepare (food to cook)préparer (la nourriture)7.3MbazlaTourneuxdipréparer (nourriture)8Proto-Lamang*dacookpréparer8.1LamangWolffdacook9Proto-Higi*tacookpréparer9.1Kamwe-NkafaHarleytacook9.2Kamwe-FutuHarleytacook9.3KiryaBlenchtàcook9.4PsikyeAngelotakécook9.5BanaLienhardtàcuire, préparer dans l'eau ou dans beaucoup d'huile10Proto-Kotoko North*dacookpréparer10.1MpadeAllisondá (lɨ) básùroastrôtir11Proto-Kotoko South*udocookpréparer11.1MazeraAllisonudocook (v)(faire) cuire, cuisiner12Proto-Musgum*dicookpréparer12.1MulwiTourneuxdicuire (une sauce)12.2MbaraTourneuxtiicookcuire13Proto-Gidar*ɨdacookpréparer13.1GidarHungerfordɨda, ədapréparer, cuisiner, (faire) cuire
daɣɨlɨjnf.young womanjeune fille921Bcfdɨm ʸ
This word denotes a girl or young woman who is old enough to marry but is not yet married. The presence of *l in this root indicates that it may have originated within the North sub-branch of Central Chadic. Proto-Central Chadic had no *l, but this phoneme was introduced into the North sub-branch by a regular change *r to l. However, the Daba, Mafa, Sukur and Hurza groups do not belong to the North sub-branch. It is possible that the root has been borrowed into these languages, since the languages where the root is present are those with strong contact with languages of the North sub-branch. The *ɣ has become /g/ in some languages in the Higi and Sukur groups, an unestablished change. It has become /h/ in many groups. In Proto-Mandara this is a regular change, but in the Mofu group the change is irregular. Elsewhere the change is unestablished. In some cases this /h/ has been deleted. The final *j has been reanalysed as the palatalisation prosody in the Mandara and Maroua groups, as consonant palatalisation in the Higi group, and as a vowel in the Sukur, Higi and Lamang groups. These are all common sporadic changes.1Proto-Daba*dahalajgirlfille1.1GavarViljoendɑhɑlɑjyoung womanjeune fille1.2MbudumNdokobaïdalajyoung womanjeune fille2Proto-Mafa*dahlagirlfille2.1CuvokGravinadahlayoung womanjeune fille3Proto-Sukur*dɨgɨliyoung womanjeune fille3.1SukurDaviddəgəligirl, unmarried3.2SukurThomasdəgəliunmarried mature girl; is the general term for unmarried mature girl.4Proto-Hurza*dalajgirlfille4.1Mbukodalajgirlfille4.2VameKinnairddìlèdaughterfille5Proto-Mandara*dahɨlɨ ʸgirlfille5.1PodokoSwackhammerdə́həla,-əjeune fille5.2MandaraFluckigergjáálejeune fille (f)5.3MalgwaLöhrgjaalegirl, daughter1MalgwaLöhrgjalagirls6Proto-Mofu*dahɨlajgirlfille6.1OuldemeKinnairddàŋgʷàlàjgirlfille6.2MuyangSmithdɑhɑlɑja marriageable girlfille à l'âge de se marier6.3MolokoFriesendalajgirlfille6.4MereyGravinadahəlajyoung womanjeune fille,épouse6.5GemzekSabataidahəlajbridemariée1GemzekSabataidahəlajjeune fille2GemzekSabataidahəlajeune fille6.6DugworJubumnadahəlajbridemariée7Proto-Maroua*dɨlɨ ʸgirlfille7.1Giziga MoutourwaMichielandijlijeune fille7.2Giziga MarvaHamidoudilidaughterfille8Proto-Higi*diɣɨlʲigirlfille8.1Kamwe-NkafaHarleydigəljiunmarriedgirl1Kamwe-NkafaHarleydigiljíyoung-girl8.2BanaLienharddàɣàlàjeune fille9Proto-Lamang*daɣaligirlfille9.1LamangWolffdaɣelegirl, young woman9.2HdiBramlettdaɣaliyoung womanla jeune fille
daŋnm.drumtambour610(Technological Spread)cfgaᵑga
This word probably denotes an hour-glass shaped drum held under the armpit. It is most probably a root that has spread across languages with the introduction of this type of drum, with the source being somewhere in Nigeria.1Proto-Bata*daŋɨdrumtambour1.1GudeHoskinsondàŋá -əsmall hourgrass shaped drum, H. Kalangu.1.2JimiDjibidaŋənPetit tambour qui a la forme de X qui sert d'accompagnement pour les autres grands tambours.2Proto-Tera*daᵑgdrumtambour2.1NyimatliHarleydaᵑgtalking drum3Proto-Sukur*daŋdrumtambour3.1SukurDaviddaŋdrum3.2SukurThomasdaŋdrum; a musical instrument made of a hollow round frame plastic or wood and skin strretched across one or both end. Your play it by hitting it with sticks or with your hands.4Proto-Margi*daŋdrumtambour4.1BuraBlenchdaᵑgdrum with two heads4.2KilbaSchuhdaŋdrum (generic)5Proto-Mandara*deŋʷɨdrumtambour5.1PodokoSwackhammerdeŋú deŋʷé,-utam-tam à l'aisselle6Proto-Higi*daŋɨ ʸdrumtambour6.1Kamwe-NkafaHarleydàᵑgjíKind of drum.6.2Kamwe-FutuHarleydjaᵑgatalking drum6.3BanaLienharddáŋtamtam sous le bras, peau de varan, esp. de petit
dawn.milletmil47Asynhɨjɨvɨjaw
The presence of a number of different roots for this most basic of subsistence crops indicates that the Central Chadic peoples were not originally subsistence farmers. The prenasalisation of *d in Mbuko is a common but sporadic process. The root may have originated in Mafa and spread to neighbouring languages. However, the root is also found in Mbazla, which is currently not in contact with the other languages represented, and the path of contact with this language needs to be established.1Proto-Mafa*dawmilletmil1.1MafaBarreteaudawmil (nom gén.)1.2CuvokGravinadawmillet (rainy season)mil (saison de pluies)2Proto-Hurza*ⁿdawmilletmil2.1MbukoGravinaⁿdawmilletmil3Proto-Mofu*dawmilletmil3.1ZulgoHallerdawmil m.3.2GemzekSabataidawmilletmil3.3MereyGravinadawmillet (rainy season)mil (saison de pluies)4Proto-Maroua*dawmilletmil4.1MbazlaTourneuxdawmil
dɨgɨɮamdeafsourd513B
The presence of the alternate root *maⁿdɨk in several languages in the Mofu group may indicate that this root is a compound of a verb *ⁿdɨk and *ɮam 'ear' (from *ɬɨmɨɗ ʸ, but with *ɮ from the South sub-branch). The prefix *ma- is a nominaliser that was productive in earlier stages of the history of Central Chadic languages, but is no longer productive in most languages. 1Proto-Mafa*dagaɮamdeafsourd1.1MafaBarreteauńⁿdakaɮamsourd-muet1MafaNdokobaiⁿdakaɮam, ⁿdaɓaɮamsourd1.2CuvokGravinamadagaɮamdeaf person(un) sourd2Proto-Hurzadɨᵑgɨɮdeafsourd2.1MbukoGravinadɨᵑgɨɮbe deafêtre sourd1MbukoGravinamədəᵑgaɮakdeafsourd3Proto-Mandara*dagaɮamdeafsourd3.1MatalBrangermadagaɮamdeafsourd4Proto-Mofu*ma-ⁿdɨk ɮamdeafsourd4.1MadaNkoumoumadagaɮamsourd-muet4.2MolokoFriesenmadəᵑgəɮadeafnesssurdité4.3GemzekSabataimaⁿdakaɮamdeaf mutesourd-muet1GemzekSabataimaⁿdakdeaf person(un) sourd4.4MereyGravinamadəᵑgəɮaksourd-muet1MereyGravinamaⁿdəkdeaf person(un) sourd, sourd-muet4.5DugworJubumnamədeᵑgəɮadeaf person(un) sourd1DugworJubumnamaⁿdakdeaf mutesourd-muet4.6Mofu NorthBarreteaumáⁿdāksourd-muet4.7Mofu-GudurHollingsworthmadakaɮamsourd-muet1Mofu-GudurHollingsworthdəgəɮam dəgəɮamsourd5Proto-Maroua*digiɮadeafsourd5.1Giziga MoutourwaMichielandigiɬrendre sourd1Giziga MoutourwaMichielanmidigiɮasourd, muet2Giziga MoutourwaMichielanmidigiɮaignorant5.2Giziga MarvaHamidoumədigɮadeaf person; deaf mute(un) sourd; sourd-muet
dɨɣʷɨvannm.leopardpanthère513D
The general sense of the root is 'leopard', though in Dugwor, Mbazla and possibly Merey the root is part of a compound, implying that it may have a different or more generic meaning. The root itself is difficult to reconstruct. The *n to r change in the Mofu group is regular. The loss of *ɣʷ is normal, though often the labialisation component remains in some form. In the Bata group the labialisation has transferred to *v.1Proto-Bata*dɨgɨvʷaleopardléopard1.1JimiDjibidəgəvʷanLa panthère1.2SharwaGravinadigvʷapanthère, léopard1.3TsuvanJohnstondəgəvala panthère2Proto-Sukur*dɨgʷavakleopardléopard2.1SukurDaviddəgʷavakleopardléopard2.2SukurDavidduguvuhyenahyène2.3SukurThomasdəgʷavakleopard3Proto-Mofu*dɨvarleopardléopard3.1ZulgoHallerdə̀varpanthère f., léopard m.3.2GemzekSabataidəvarpanthère3.3MereyGravinadəvarpanthère1MereyGravinadəvar dzidzegeleopardléopard3.4DugworJubumnadəvar j peɬleopardléopard3.5Mofu-GudurHollingsworthdəváLéopard ("panthère")4Proto-Maroua*dɨvaŋleopardléopard4.1MbazlaTourneuxdəvaŋ garakléopard1MbazlaTourneuxdəvaŋlion5Proto-Higi*dɨɣʷavaleopardléopard5.1Kamwe-FutuHarleydəɣʷavaleopard5.2PsikyeAngeloɗəgʷavahyenahyène1PsikyeAngelodəgʷavahyenahyène5.3BanaLienhardd(ə̀)ɣʷàvàpanthère
dɨm ʸnf.girlfille410Acfdaɣɨlɨj
This word denotes a female child. The root is very stable, though the palatalisation prosody has been lost in the Sukur group. The vowel /a/ in Proto-Mafa is a regular change.1Proto-Daba*dɨmɨ ʸgirlfille1.1DabaLienhardmèdīmíla jeune fille, pas mariée2Proto-Mafa*dam ʸgirlfille2.1MafaBarreteaudámfille2.2CuvokGravinademgirl, daughter(petite) fille, fillette3Proto-Mofu*dɨm ʸgirlfille3.1ZulgoHallerdə̀mfille f.1ZulgoHallerdə̀menfant (m.) du sexe féminin3.2GemzekSabataidəmgirlfille1GemzekSabataidəm ŋadaughterfille3.3MereyGravinademfille3.4DugworJubumnademgirl(petite) fille, fillette3.5Mofu NorthBarreteaudémfille1Mofu NorthBarreteaudə́mmèeh! toi, fille!3.6Mofu-GudurHollingsworthdamdaughterfille4Proto-Sukur*dɨmgirlfille4.1SukurDaviddəmdaughter4.2SukurThomasdəmunmarried girl; is the general term for unmarried girl.
dɨrv.to burnbruler510A
This word denotes the complete burning of an object until it becomes ash. All of the groups represented except the Mafa group are from the North sub-branch, and we would expect to find *l rather than *r in these languages. However there are exceptions in the Mandara and Lamang groups, which may be due to a later unestablihsed change from *l to /r/. The change *r to l in Cuvok is a regular feature of the language, as is the change *l to r in Moloko.1Proto-Mafa*ⁿdarburnbruler1.1MafaBarreteauⁿdár-brûler (faire du charbon de bois, cuire)1.2CuvokGravinaⁿdalaburnbrûler2Proto-Mandara*dɨrɨburnbrûler2.1MandaraFluckigerdérébrûler (brûler complètement), carboniser3Proto-Mofu*dɨlburnbruler3.1OuldemeKinnairdubd stemdālājburnbrûler plusieurs fois1OuldemeKinnairdubd stemdə̄lburnbrûler2OuldemeKinnairdubd stemdə̄lcuire la poterie3.2MolokoFriesendarburn, grilluntil it becomes ash for making potash and pottery; jusqu'à ce que ça deveiens du cendre pour faire la potasse (wuhle) et la potérie.1MolokoFriesendarto get on someone's nervesénerver quelqu'un3.3ZulgoHallerdúlbrûler, être consommé, prendre feu3.4Mofu-GudurHollingsworth́ⁿdəlbrûler sur le feu, consumer entièrement jusqu'à réduire en cendre (sur le feu) ; cuir les poteries4Proto-Maroua*dɨlɨ ʸburnbruler4.1MbazlaTourneuxⁿdilibruler1MbazlaSILSurveydílíburn (transitive)brûler (transitif)5Proto-Lamang*dɨraburnbruler5.1LamangWolffdraburn5.2HdiBramlettdərajto burnbrûler
dɨrɨmnf.animal horncorne d'un animal826Csynlaganmahʷaᵐbɨkʷɨm
This root poses some interesting problems in reconstruction. The change *d to t in the Margi and Higi groups is regular. We also expect to find *r becoming *l in all groups except for Mafa and Sukur. However there are exceptions in the Mandara, Mofu and Maroua groups. The Mafa and Mofu data indicate that there are two cognate roots interfering, with *dɨrɨm being the horn of an animal, and *tɨlɨm being an animal horn used as a musical instrument. Another difficulty is the presence of labialisation in many of the groups. The change *m to /w/ in the Mandara group is regular, and in the Lamang group is a common sporadic change. However we also have labialisation in the Mafa, Sukur, Maroua and Higi groups that has not come from *m. In the Maroua group this is a common sporadic change, but the present reconstruction does not account for the introduction of labialisation in the other groups.1Proto-Mafa*dɨram ʷhorncorne1.1MafaBarreteautolomcorne (animal) utilisé pour faire la musique1MafaBarreteaudúrómcorne d'animal1.2CuvokGravinadəremhorncorne1.3MefeleCrawforddərumhorncorne2Proto-Sukur*twamhorncorne2.1SukurThomastwamhorn; a hard pointed part that grow usually in pairs, on the heads of some animals, eg cow, sheep and goats.3Proto-Margi*tɨlɨmhorncorne3.1BuraBlenchtiᵐbulHorn of an animal3.2KilbaSchuhtələmhorn4Proto-Mandara*dɨrɨmahorncorne4.1MatalBrangerdraw, dərawhorncorne4.2PodokoSwackhammerdərawa,-ə 1corne4.3MandaraFluckigerdermácorne (f)4.4MalgwaLöhrdərmehorn4.5GlavdaOwensdəráhorn1GlavdaNghagyivadràwahorn4.6DghwedeFrickdərawahorn5Proto-Mofu*dɨramhorncorne5.1MuyangSmithedremtusk ; horncorne5.2MadaNkoumoudràmcorne d'animal5.3MereyGravinadəramcorne5.4DugworJubumnadəromhorncorne5.5Mofu NorthBarreteautəlamcorne (de buffle ou en bois)1Mofu NorthBarreteautālāmcorne (de buffle ou en bois)5.6Mofu-GudurHollingsworthtəlamcorne à souffler (de buffle ou en bois)6Proto-Maroua*dɨrɨm ʷhorncorne6.1Giziga MoutourwaMichielandurumcorne, = marta: corne tabatière (tapa ngi zi'iñ)1Giziga MoutourwaMichielandrumcorne6.2Giziga MarvaHamidouduromhorncorne6.3MbazlaTourneuxdurumcorne1MbazlaSILSurveydùrūmhorncorne7Proto-Lamang*dulihorncorne7.1LamangWolffdulihorn7.2HdiBramlettdulihornla corne8Proto-Higi*tɨlimʷɨhorncorne8.1Kamwe-NkafaHarleytərmʷihorn8.2Kamwe-FutuHarleytərimohorn (of animal); ivory8.3BanaLienhardtə̀lìmə̀corne
dzagʷanf.hatchapeau1021A
This root is found in almost all groups of the North sub-branch of Central Chadic, but in none of the groups of the South sub-branch. This is not known to be a borrowed root, and so may be a Central Chadic root, originating in Proto-Central Chadic North. The original type of hat could have been straw, cloth or leather. There is some variation between /gʷ/ and /kʷ/, and in the vocalisation patterns, and these changes are unestablished.1Proto-Hurza*dzɨgʷahatchapeau1.1MbukoGravinadʒugohatchapeau1.2VameKinnairddzúgēhelmetbonnet2Proto-Margi*dzakʷahatchapeau2.1BuraBlenchdzakʷaHat; cap or soft hat3Proto-Mandara*dzakʷɨhatchapeau3.1MatalBrangerdzakʷahatchapeau3.2PodokoSwackhammerdzakʷa,-uchapeau3.3MandaraFluckigerdzakʷébonnet (m)3.4GlavdaNghagyivad͡zákʷahat4Proto-Mofu*dzagʷɨhatchapeau4.1OuldemeKinnairddzàgùhatchapeau4.2MuyangSmithdʒɑkuhat made of clothchapeau4.3MolokoFriesendʒogohatchapeau; bonnet4.4MereyGravinadzagʷachapeau1MereyGravinadzakʷabonnet ou chapeau4.5DugworJubumnadʒiggohatchapeau4.6Mofu-GudurHollingsworthdʒikʷewbonnet5Proto-Maroua*dzakʷɨhatchapeau5.1Giziga MoutourwaMichielandʒijkuchapeau5.2Giziga MarvaHamidoudʒokohatchapeau6Proto-Lamang*dzɨgʷahatchapeau6.1LamangWolffdzoŋohat6.2HdiBramlettdzugʷaleather hatle chapeau de cuir7Proto-Kotoko Island*ⁿdzakʷahatchapeau7.1BudumaMcKoneⁿdʒokʷahatchapeau7.2BudumaMcKoneⁿdʒokʷabonnet (n : [njakwa]).8Proto-Kotoko North*sagʷahatchapeau8.1MpadeAllisonságʷáhatchapeau9Proto-Kotoko South*dzakʷɨhatchapeau9.1ZinaOddendʒàkúhatchapeau10Proto-Musgum*zagawhatchapeau10.1VulumTourneuxzagawbonnet
dzajv.to bitemordre514synhʷɨpɨɗ
This root is largely stable, with the only change being the unestablished change *dz to /ts/ in the Daba and Maroua groups. The final *j is realised as the palatalisation prosody in the Mafa, Mandara and Maroua groups, which is a common sporadic process. The Proto-Daba root is prenasalised, which is also a common sporadic process.1Proto-Daba*ntsabitemordre1.1BuwalViljoenŋtʃɑbite (v)mordre1BuwalViljoenŋtʃɑgnawronger2BuwalViljoenŋtʃɑstingpiquer1.2GavarViljoenŋtsɑbite (v)mordre1GavarViljoenŋtsɑstingpiquer1.3DabaLienhardᵑgàtʃmordre, tourmenter, aboyer2Proto-Mafa*dza ʸbitemordre2.1MafaNdokobain dʒemordre1MafaBarreteaudʒ-mordre3Proto-Mandara*dza ʸbitemordre3.1MatalBrangermatsajbitemordre3.2PodokoSwackhammerⁿdʒewé 1mordre3.3MalgwaLöhrdʒabite, beat (with stick)3.4DghwedeFrickⁿdzaxabite4Proto-Mofu*dzajbitemordre4.1OuldemeKinnairdmātsājmordre, piquer plusieurs fois4.2ZulgoHallerdze(-r)mordre4.3GemzekSabataidzajbite (v)mordre1GemzekSabataia dzajmordre2GemzekSabataimedzestrike (snake)mordre, piquer (serpent)4.4Mofu NorthBarreteaumézèjmordre1Mofu NorthBarreteaumézèjpiquer (serpent)4.5Mofu-GudurHollingsworth́zmordre, piquer (serpent)5Proto-Maroua*tsɨ ʸbitemordre5.1MbazlaTourneuxtʃimordre
dzarajnm.locustcriquet migrateur922Acfhaɗikʷ
This word denotes the locust, known well in the region for appearing periodically in huge swarms and devastating crops. The change *dz to /z/ in Gidar is regular, as is the change *r to *l in the groups of the North sub-branch, though the Mofu, Maroua and Gidar groups do not show this change. The final *j has been reanalysed as the palatalisation prosody in the Daba group, and possibly in the Tera group, which is a common sporadic process. 1Proto-Daba*dzara ʸlocustlocuste1.1BuwalViljoendʒerelocustlocuste, criquet1.2GavarViljoendʒerilocustlocuste, criquet1.3MbudumNdokobaïdʒerelocustlocuste, criquet2Proto-Mafa*dzarajlocustlocuste2.1MafaNdokobaidzarajcriquet2.2CuvokGravinadʒarajlocustlocuste, criquet3Proto-Tera*ⁿdzerelocustlocuste3.1NyimatliHarleyʒoolalocustcriquet1NyimatliHarleyⁿdʒerecricket4Proto-Sukur*dzalajlocustcriquet migrateur4.1SukurThomasdzalailocust; an insect that lives in hot countries and flies in lage groups, destroying and the plants and crops of an area.5Proto-Hurza*dzarajlocustlocuste5.1MbukoGravinadzarajlocustcriquet migrateur5.2VameKinnairddzùràjcricketcriquets qui se déplacent en grands nombres qui dévastent la récolte.6Proto-Mofu*dzarajlocustlocuste6.1OuldemeKinnairddzàràjlocust, grasshoppersauterelle, locuste, criquet migrateur6.2MuyangSmithdʒɑrɑjPlague Locustlocuste migratoire, criquet6.3MadaNkoumoudʒaracriquet migrateur (criquet pélérin)6.4MolokoFriesendʒarajlocustcriquet; sauterelle6.5ZulgoHallerdzarásauterelle f. sp.6.6GemzekSabataidzarasauterelle6.7MereyGravinadzarajlocustlocuste, criquet migrateur6.8Mofu NorthBarreteaudzārājcriquet migrateur6.9Mofu-GudurHollingsworthdʒárajcriquet migrateur (dévastateur des plantes)7Proto-Maroua*dzarajlocustlocuste7.1Giziga MoutourwaMichielandʒarajcriquets pèlerins dévasteurs8Proto-Higi*dzalajlocustlocuste8.1Kamwe-FutuHarleydzalalocustcriquet8.2BanaLienharddʒìrcriquet migrateur9Proto-Gidar*zarajlocustcriquet migrateur9.1GidarHungerfordzarajcriquet, sauterelle
dzavɨnnf.guinea fowlpintade1749B
Although this is one of the most widely attested roots in Central Chadic, the reconstruction presents some difficulties. The initial *dz is only retained in two groups. It is realised as *ts in five groups and as *z in ten groups. Only in the Gidar and Kotoko Centre groups is this change regular. *dz is preferred for the reconstruction as being the most likely to produce the other two realisations. The *v is realised as *f in Kotoko North (a regular change), as *b in the Sukur and Mandara groups (an unestablished change), and as *p in the Mafa group (also an unestablished change). The *n is realised as *r in the Margi, Mandara and Mofu groups, which is a regular change. The labialisation in the Bata and Maroua groups is a sporadic innovation, as is the palatalisation in the Tera, Mandara and Musgum groups.1Proto-Bata*zavʷɨnguineafowlpintade1.1GudeHoskinsonzòovə̀náguinea fowl1.2JimiDjibizavʷənənPintade1.3SharwaGravinazavunəpintade1.4TsuvanJohnstonzavənkənla pintade2Proto-Daba*zavɨnguineafowlpintade2.1BuwalViljoenzɑvɑnguinea fowlpintade2.2GavarViljoenzɑvənguinea fowlpintade2.3MbudumNdokobaïzavaŋguinea fowlpintade2.4DabaLienhardzàvə́nla pintade3Proto-Mafa*zapanguineafowlpintade3.1MafaBarreteauzápánpintade3.2CuvokGravinazapaŋguinea fowlpintade4Proto-Tera*tsivanguineafowlpintade4.1TeraNewmantʃivanguinea-fowlpintade4.2NyimatliHarleyʃivanguinea fowlpintade5Proto-Sukur*zabɨnguinea fowlpintade5.1SukurDavidzabənguineafowlpintade5.2SukurThomaszabənguineafowl; is the general term for guinea fowl; it has dark grey feathers with white spots. There are two types of guineafowls: demostic and bush guineafowls.6Proto-Hurza*zavɨnguineafowlpintade6.1MbukoGravinanzavanguinea fowlpintade6.2VameKinnairdsàvnàkpartridgepintade7Proto-Margi*tsɨvɨrguineafowlpintade7.1MargiHoffmantsəvərguinea-fowlpintade7.2KilbaSchuhtsəvərguinea fowlpintade7.3BuraBlenchtsə̀və́raGuinea fowl8Proto-Mandara*zabɨra ʸguineafowlpintade8.1MatalBrangerzavərguineafowlpintade8.2PodokoSwackhammerzaᵐbəra,-apintade8.3MandaraFluckigerʒábèrápintade (f)8.4MalgwaLöhrʒebreguinea fowlpintade8.5GlavdaNghagyivaʒàbɾaguinea fowlpintade1GlavdaOwensžeebguinea fowlpintade2GlavdaOwenszabəguinea fowlpintade9Proto-Mofu*dzavɨrguineafowlpintade9.1OuldemeKinnairdzàvàrguinea fowlpintade9.2MuyangSmithdʒɑvɑrguinea fowlpintade9.3MadaNkoumouzàvàrpintade9.4MolokoFriesendʒavarguinea fowlpintade9.5ZulgoHallerⁿdzávə́rpintade f.9.6GemzekSabataiⁿdzavarguinea fowlpintade9.7MereyGravinaⁿdzavarguinea fowlpintade9.8DugworJubumnaⁿdʒavarguinea fowlpintade9.9Mofu NorthBarreteauⁿdzàvárpintade1Mofu NorthBarreteauⁿdzávárpintade9.10Mofu-GudurHollingsworthtsavárpintade (Mokong)1Mofu-GudurHollingsworthtsavárpintade (Mokong)2Mofu-GudurHollingsworthⁿdʒavárpintade commune (Gudur)10Proto-Maroua*tsɨvɨn ʷguineafowlpintade10.1Giziga MoutourwaMichielantʃuvuŋpintade10.2Giziga MarvaHamidoutʃuvonguinea fowlpintade10.3MbazlaTourneuxtʃufuŋpintade11Proto-Lamang*zɨvɨnguineafowlpintade11.1HdiBramlettzəvnəkguinea henla pintade12Proto-Higi*zivɨnguineafowlpintade12.1Kamwe-NkafaHarleyzəvənəguinea fowlpintade12.2Kamwe-FutuHarleyzivənoguinea fowlpintade12.3BanaLienhardzə̀və́nìpintade13Proto-Kotoko North*tsafanguineafowlpintade13.1AfadeAllisontsɨfan; gɨdɨgoguinea fowlpintade13.2MpadeAllisonsafanguinea fowlpintade13.3MalgbeAllisonsafanguinea fowlpintade13.4MaltamAllisonsafanguinea fowlpintade14Proto-Kotoko Centre*zavanguineafowlpintade14.1LagwanAllisonzavanguinea fowlpintade14.2MserAllisonsavanguinea fowlpintade15Proto-Kotoko South*dzavaŋguineafowlpintade15.1MazeraAllisondʒavaŋguinea fowlpintade16Proto-Musgum*tsaavan ʸguineafowlpintade16.1MbaraTourneuxtʃeeveŋhelmet guinea-fowlpintade17Proto-Gidar*zamvɨnaguinea fowlpintade17.1GidarHungerfordzamvənapintade17.2GidarSchuhsamvəna/apintade17.3GidarHungerfordzafʼnapintade
dzɨdzɨ ʸnm.grandfathergrand-père817A
The initial *dz has the reflex *ts in Proto-Hurza and Proto-Margi, which is an unestablished change in both cases. In Proto-Mandara both *dz have become *d, also an unestablished change. The palatalisation prosody is supported by the data from all the groups. In the Mandara group, the palatalisation prosody has effected the *d. This was followed by a regular change where palatalised alveolars become palatalised velars, resulting in *dʲ→gʲ. In Mbuko and Sukur, the reflex of the root is not reduplicated, but other material has been added.1Proto-Bata*dzɨdzɨ ʸgrandfathergradn-père1.1GudeHoskinsondzə̀dzə̀1GudeHoskinsondzə̀dzə̀grandfather, grandfather's male sibling or cousin.1.2JimiDjibidzədzənGrand-père ; les enfants appellent leur grand-père "dzedza" comme lui aussi les appelle de la même façon.1.3SharwaGravinadʒidʒəgrandpère1.4TsuvanJohnstondzədzegrand-père2Proto-Daba*dzadzɨ ʸgrandfathergrand-père2.1BuwalViljoendʒedʒegrandparentgrand-parent2.2GavarViljoendʒedʒigrandparentgrand-parent3Proto-Sukur*dzɨkʷɨ ʸgrandfathergrand-père3.1SukurThomasdʒikugrand father:- father to your father or to your mother.4Proto-Hurza*tsɨdza ʸgrandfathergrand-père4.1MbukoGravinabidʒegrandfathergrand-père4.2VameKinnairdtʃèdʒégrandfather ; grandadgrand-parents5Proto-Margi*tsɨdzɨ ʸgrandfathergrand-père5.1MargiHoffmantʃidʒigrandparent5.2Margi SouthHarleytʃidʒigrandparent5.3KilbaSchuhadʒigrandchild, grandparent6Proto-Mandara*dɨdɨ ʸgrandfathergrand-père6.1MandaraFluckigeréggjegrand-père, grand-mère, petit(s) fils/fille1MandaraFluckigereggjáájegrand-parent (m)(fam.)6.2MalgwaLöhrəggjegrandparents7Proto-Lamang*dzidzigrandfathergrand-père7.1LamangWolffdzidzigrandfather7.2HdiBramlettdzidzigrandfatherle grand-père8Proto-Higi*dzʲɨdzʲɨgrandfathergrand-père8.1BanaLienharddʒìdʒìgrand-père
dzɨgʷɨrn.humpbosse1018C
This root denotes the hump on a zebu cow, and is used by extension for a human hunchback. It is found almost exclusively in the languages of the North sub-branch. It may have come into Central Chadic from an old form of the Kanuri zugure, or the transmission may have been in the opposite direction. If the root did come from Kanuri, the back vowels were reanalysed as labialisation of the /g/. Given the widespread distribution of the root, and evidence that the early Central Chadic peoples were cattle-herders, it seems more probable that the root spread from Central Chadic to Kanuri, though the forms in Musgum and some of the Kotoko groups may be due to borrowing the more recent form of the Kanuri word. Two groups have *ɗ as the initial consonant, possibly reflecting the arrival of the same root but from a different source.1Proto-Dabaɗɨgʷɨr ʸhumpbosse1.1MbudumNdokobaïɗiᵑgirhump (of cow)bosse (de vache)1.2GavarViljoenɗəᵑgurhumpbosse1.3BuwalViljoenɗəgʷarhumpbosse2Proto-Teraɗɨgʷɨlhumpbosse2.1NyimatliHarleyɗugulhumpbosse3Proto-Sukur*dzɨgʷɨɗ ʸhumpbosse3.1SukurDaviddʒiguɗhump, of cow3.2SukurThomasdʒiguɗhump, a large lump at the back of animals, specially camel, cow4Proto-Hurza*dzɨgʷarhumpbosse4.1MbukoGravinamədzəgarcow humpbosse (f) d'un boeuf4.2VameKinnairdhʷádègʷàrhump of a cowbosse de boeuf5Proto-Margi*dzikʷɨr ʸ, madagarahumpbosse5.1BuraBlenchmadagaraStooped, hump-backed1BuraBlenchmadakaraStooped, hump-backed. See madagara2BuraBlenchdʒukurBump or hump of a cow3BuraBlenchdʒikurHump on cattle6Proto-Mofu*madzɨgɨr, mɨtakʷarhumpbosse6.1MolokoFriesenmətokorhump on an animal or personbosse d'un animal ou d'une personne6.2ZulgoHallermádzə̀gə̀rbosse (f.) d'un animal6.3GemzekSabataimadzəgarhump (of hunchback)bosse1GemzekSabataimadzəgarbump (n)bosse2GemzekSabataimadzəgarhump (of cow)bosse (de vache)6.4MereyGravinamadzəgarhump (of hunchback)bosse6.5Mofu NorthBarreteaumádzə̀gàrbosse (de zébu)7Proto-Kotoko North*sɨgʷɨrehumpbosse7.1MpadeAllisonsúgùréhump (of cow)bosse (de vache)7.2MalgbeAllisonsɨgbɨrehump (of cow)bosse (de vache)1MalgbeAllisonsɨgbɨrehump (of hunchback)bosse8Proto-Kotoko Centre*zɨrkʼʷahumpbosse8.1LagwanAllisonzurkʼʷahump (of cow)bosse (de vache)9Proto-Kotoko South*dzaŋkʷarahumpbosse9.1MazeraAllisondʒaŋkʷarahump (of cow)bosse (de vache)10Proto-Musgum*zɨgʷɨrijhumpbosse10.1MulwiTourneuxzuguriibosse de la vache11Kanurizúgùrè //// tsúgurēhump (of cow)bosse (de vache)
dzɨmɨkʷ ʸnm.porcupineporc-épic815Bcftsɨhʷɨɗ ʸ
This is the most widely-attested root for 'porcupine'. It may be an innovation in Proto-Central Chadic South, since it is found in at least four of the five groups within the South sub-branch of Central Chadic, and in few other languages. The final consonant is *n in the Daba group, and a glottal stop in the Bata group. The final consonant may be an historic noun suffix which is no longer productive. The *m is sporadically realised as /ᵐb/ in the Mafa, Mofu and Lamang groups. There is support for the palatalisation prosody from all groups except the isolated instances in Podoko and Mofu-Gudur. In Hdi it is frozen into the vowel system, and in the Higi group it is realised as a palatalised laminal consonant. The *dz has reflexes /d/, /z/ and /ts/. There is not enough data to identify these as regular changes in any of these groups, though Proto-Bata and Proto-Lamang have the related change *ts→t, and Proto-Higi has the analogous devoicing of *d to t.1Proto-Bata*dɨmaʔa ʸporcupineporc-épic1.1GudeHoskinsondə̀mə̀jáporcupine1.2SharwaGravinadimaʼaporc-épic1.3TsuvanJohnstondimaʼale porc-épic2Proto-Daba*zɨmɨn ʸporcupineporc-épic2.1BuwalViljoenzəmeŋporcupineporc-épic2.2GavarViljoenʒimɑmporcupineporc-épic2.3MbudumNdokobaïzeᵐbəŋporcupineporc-épic2.4DabaLienhardzàᵐbánle porc-épic3Proto-Mafa*dɨᵐbakʷ ʸporcupineporc-épic3.1MafaBarreteaudiᵐbekporc-épic3.2CuvokGravinadəᵐbekʷporcupineporc-épic1CuvokGravinadəᵐbəkʷpor-épick4Proto-Sukur*dzɨmɨk ʸporcupineporc-épic4.1SukurDaviddʒiməkporcupineporc-épic4.2SukurThomasdʒiməkporcupine; an animals covered with long stiff parts like needles which it can raise to protect itself when it is attacked. it usually live in a rocks.5Proto-Mandara*dɨᵐbɨkɨporcupineporc-épic5.1PodokoSwackhammerdɨ́ᵐbɨke,-əporc-épic6Proto-Mofu*damdzakʷporcupineporc-épic6.1Mofu-GudurHollingsworthdám-jakʷporc-épic sp.7Proto-Lamang*diᵐbikʷporcupineporc-épic7.1HdiBramlettdiᵐbikʷporcupinele porc-épic8Proto-Higi*tsʲɨmɨkʷporcupineporc-épic8.1KiryaBlenchtʃìmə́húporcupineporc-épic8.2BanaLienhardtʃìmə́kə́porc-épic
dzɨvajn.tombtombeau613A
The word denotes the hole in which a body is buried, which may be a vertical hole leading to a small chamber and covered with a rock. The *dz has undergone the unestablished change to /ts/ in Daba and some Mofu group languages, and to /z/ in the Maroua group. The *j has been reanalysed as the palatalisation prosody in the Daba and Maroua groups, which is a common sporadic change. The range of use of the root implies an origin in the Mandara Mountains, and may reflect an ancient Daba-Mafa practice.1Proto-Daba*tsɨvɨʔ ʸgravetombeau1.1DabaLienhardtʃìvīʼla tombe2Proto-Mafa*dzɨvajgravetombeau2.1MafaNdokobaidzavajtombeau2.2CuvokGravinadʒəvajgravetombe, tombeau3Proto-Hurza*dzɨvajgravetombeau3.1MbukoGravinadʒəvajtombtombeau4Proto-Mandara*dzɨvajtombtombeau4.1MatalBrangerzəvajgravetombe4.2PodokoSwackhammerdʒúve,-itombeau5Proto-Mofu*dzɨvajtombtombeau5.1ZulgoHallerdìvetombeau m.5.2GemzekSabataidzəvala tombe5.3MereyGravinatsəvajtombe5.4Mofu NorthBarreteauɗ[i tsə̀vàjtombe (cou)5.5Mofu-GudurHollingsworth́tsəvajtombe6Proto-Maroua*zɨvɨ ʸgravetombeau6.1Giziga MoutourwaMichielanzivitombe6.2Giziga MarvaHamidouzivegravetombe, tombeau
dzɨvɨ ʸn.armbras414Csynhɨrapaɮa
This root is found in the south-west of the Central Chadic area. Evidence for the palatalisation prosody comes only from the Bata group. The *dz is realised as /ts/ or /t/ in the Bata group, and as /d/ or /r/ in the Mandara group. There is a regular change *d to /r/ within the Mandara group, but only in intervocalic position. The other changes are unestablished.1Proto-Bata*tsɨvɨ ʸarmbras1.1BataBoydtɨ̀fehand1.2GudeHoskinsontʃíinə(inher. poss., body part) hand, arm.1.3JimiDjibitʃijənMain ; c'est un mot qui sert aussi à montrer d'autres parties de la main :1.4SharwaGravinativibras, main1.5TsuvanJohnstontʃəvela main, le bras2Proto-Mandara*dɨvaarmbras2.1MandaraFluckigerérvabras (m), main (f)2.2MalgwaLöhrərvahand2.3GlavdaOwensdə́hand1GlavdaNghagyivadɨ̀vaarm2GlavdaNghagyivadɨ̀vahand2.4DghwedeFrickdəvaarm, hand3Proto-Lamang*dzɨvɨwarmbras3.1LamangWolffdzə̀vòhand3.2HdiBramlettdzəvuhandla main4Proto-Higi*dzɨvɨarmbras4.1Kamwe-FutuHarleydziɓəhand4.2PsikyeAngelodzəvəhand4.3BanaLienharddə̀və̀main
dzɨwɨɗ ʸnf/mflymouche1744A
This well-attested root is found in all groups except for the Tera group. There is support for the palatalisation prosody across the reconstructions of the forms of the group proto-languages. In many cases there is the common change *ɗ to /j/ under palatalization. In Proto-Bata *ɗ has been reduced to *ʔ, and in Proto-Kotoko North it has fused with *dz to form the ejective *tsʼ. Both of these are common sporadic changes. The *dz is variously realised as /d/, /z/, /ts/. The changes in Proto-Margi, Proto-Musgum and Proto-Kotoko Centre are regular, but the rest are unestablished. The *w has been lost in Proto-Bata, Proto-Margi and Proto-Gidar, which is a common sporadic change.1Proto-Bata*dzɨʔɨ ʸflymouche1.1BataBoyddʒittofly1.2GudeHoskinsondʒì ʼ í́lácow fly.1.3JimiDjibidʒiʼinMouche1.4SharwaGravinadʒiʼimouche2Proto-Daba*dzɨwɨɗ ʸflymouche2.1BuwalViljoendʒedʒəweɗfly (n)mouche2.2GavarViljoendʒiwiɗfly (n)mouche2.3MbudumNdokobaïdʒidʒiwəɗfly (n)mouche2.4DabaLienhardtʃèdīla mouche3Proto-Mafa*dzɨwajflymouche3.1MafaBarreteaudzúwájmouche4Proto-Sukur*dzɨwɨɗ ʸflymouche4.1SukurDaviddʒuwiflymouche4.2SukurThomasdʒuifly;- general term for flies.5Proto-Hurza*dzɨwajflymouche5.1MbukoGravinadzuwajflymouche5.2VameKinnairddzùwàjflymouche6Proto-Margitsɨɗɨ ʸflymouche6.1MargiHoffmantʃiɗiflymouche6.2KilbaSchuhtʃəɗifly (n)mouche6.3BuraBlenchtʃiriGeneral name for the fly and bee group of insectsmouche7Proto-Mandara*ⁿdzɨwɨɗ ʸflymouche7.1MatalBrangerzwaj, zəwaj, zuwajflymouche7.2PodokoSwackhammerⁿdʒəwe,-əmouche7.3MandaraFluckigerⁿdʒáŋʷámouche (f), espèce (sens figuré)7.4MalgwaLöhrⁿdʒəŋʷaflymouche7.5GlavdaOwensnğuflymouche1GlavdaNghagyivand͡ʒùjafly (n)mouche8Proto-Mofu*dzɨwajflymouche8.1OuldemeKinnairdzùwàjflymouche8.2MuyangSmithezʉwihouse fly; flymouche1MuyangSmithezʉwidummy opponent in a gameadversaire imaginaire dans un jeu de société8.3MolokoFriesendʒəwajflymouche1MolokoFriesendʒəwaj8.4ZulgoHallerdzìwemouche f.8.5GemzekSabataidzuwefly (n)mouche8.6MereyGravinadzuwajfly (n)mouche8.7DugworJubumnadʒuwajfly (n)mouche8.8Mofu NorthBarreteaudzùwájmouche8.9Mofu-GudurHollingsworth́dʒadʒəwajmouche (nom gén.)9Proto-Maroua*dzɨdzɨwɨɗ ʸflymouche9.1Giziga MoutourwaMichielandʒidʒiwiɗ(i)mouche1Giziga MoutourwaMichielandʒidʒiwiɗ(i)abeille9.2Giziga MarvaHamidoudʒidʒiweɗfly (n)mouche10Proto-Lamang*ziwɗiflymouche10.1LamangWolffziɗifly10.2HdiBramlettziɗikʷflyla mouche11Proto-Higi*zʲɨwiɗflymouche11.1Kamwe-FutuHarleyʒiwifly (insect); houseflymouche11.2KiryaBlenchʒéwhouseflymouche11.3BanaLienhardʒíɓ(i)mouche12Proto-Kotoko Island*hadzuflymouche12.1BudumaMcKonehâdʒumouche.13Proto-Kotoko North*tsʼɨwiflymouche13.1AfadeAllisontsɨwifly (n)mouche13.2MaltamAllisonsʼiwifly (n)mouche14Proto-Kotoko Centre*zɨwiɗflymouche14.1LagwanAllisonzufly (n)mouche14.2MserAllisonmsʼɨwifly (n)mouche15Proto-Kotoko South*dzadzwiflymouche15.1ZinaOddendʒàdʒwìfly (n)mouche16Proto-Musgum*dɨwajflymouche16.1VulumTourneuxaduwajmouche16.2MbaraTourneuxtuwajfly (insect)mouche17Proto-Gidar*zɨkɗa ʸflymouche17.1GidarHungerfordzikɗemouche17.2GidarSchuhzikɗe/emouche
dzɨwɨn ʸnf.elephantéléphant513Asyngɨwɨnᵐbɨlala ʸnɨvi
This root is one of several roots for elephant. It is possible cognate with *gɨwɨn, but the two roots would have developed along very different paths. The change *dz→ts in Proto-Margi and Proto-Higi is not known as a regular change, though Proto-Margi did have the change *z→s. There was a regular change *n→r in word-final position in the Margi-Mandara-Mofu major group. There is support for the palatalization prosody in all groups.1Proto-Bata*dzɨwɨnɨ ʸelephantéléphant1.1GudeHoskinsontʃóonà -əelephant1.2JimiDjibidʒuunənEléphant2Proto-Tera*dzɨwan ʸelephantéléphant2.1TeraNewmandʒuwanelephant2.2NyimatliHarleyʒuwanelephant2.3GaʼandaGwajitʃhuwenaelephant3Proto-Sukur*dzɨwan ʸelephantéléphant3.1SukurDaviddʒuwanelephant3.2SukurThomasdʒiwanelephant; a large animal with thick grey skin, large ears, two curved teeth called tusk and long nose called trunk.4Proto-Margi*tsɨwar ʸelephantéléphant4.1BuraBlenchtʃiwarThe elephant4.2MargiHoffmantʃuwarelephant4.3Margi SouthHarleytʃiwarelephant5Proto-Higi*tsʲɨwɨnelephantéléphant5.1Kamwe-NkafaHarleytʃhiwəelephant5.2Kamwe-FutuHarleytʃhiweelephant5.3KiryaBlenchtʃùúnə́elephant5.4BanaLienhardtʃìwə̀éléphant