1. The grammatical function of tones in Dioula
Certain grammatical tones in Dioula serve to distinguish between definite and indefinite nouns. While the indefinite nouns are unmarked, the definite nouns are marked by a high tone mark on the last vowel. See the examples below in which the definite nouns are marked with a high tone:
Indefinite nouns: Definite nouns:
baa «une chèvre» (a goat) baá «la chèvre (en question)» (the goat in question)
báa «un fleuve» (a river) báá «le fleuve» (the river)
soo «un cheval» (a horse) soó «le cheval» (the horse)
sóo «une maison» (a house) sóó «la maison» (the house)
The tones are different in a compound word than a noun phrase.
For example:
mùsó tɔ́gɔ́ «le nom de la femme (en question)» (the name of the woman in question)
mùsòtɔ́gɔ́ «nom de femme» (woman's name)
bàá kùún «la tête de la chèvre (en question)» (the head of the goat in question)
bàkún «tête de chèvre» (goat's head)
2. Nouns
The plural marker in Dioula is "w". It is pronounced [ù] and occurs at the end of nouns, adjectives and certain emphatic and insistent pronouns.
wulu «chien» (dog) wuluw «chiens» (dogs)
an «nous simple» (simple "we") anw «nous emphatique» (emphatic "we")
3. Pronouns
3.1 Personal pronouns
The personal pronouns serve as subjects or objects in a clause:
ń ń naná. «Je suis venu(e).» (I came.)
í (é) í naná. « Tu es venu(e).» (You came.)
à à naná. «Il (elle) est venu(e).» (He/she came.)
án án naná. «Nous sommes venus(es).» (We came.)
á á naná. «Vous êtes venus(es).» (You came.)
ò (ù) ò naná. «Ils / elles sont venus(es).» (They came.)
Emphatic pronouns
ńné ńné naná. «Moi, je suis venu(e).» (Me, I came.)
éle éle naná. «Toi, tu es venu(e).» (You, you came.)
alé alé naná. «Il / elle, il / elle est venu(e).» (He/she, he/she came.)
ánw ánw naná. «Nous, nous sommes venus(es).» (We, we came.)
áw áw naná. «Vous, vous êtes venus(es).» (You, you came.)
olú (ulú) olú naná. «Eux, ils / elles sont venus(es).» (They, they came.)
3.2 Interrogative pronouns
⇒ mín ? (sg.) «où ?» (where ?)
Tása bé mín? «Où est l'assiette ?» (Where is the plate?)
⇒ mínw ? (pl.) «où ?» (where - plural)
A bɔra yɔ́rɔ mínw ná. «Les lieux d'où il est venu.» (The places from where he came.)
⇒ mùn «quoi, que, qu'est-ce qui /que» (what)
A bí mun báara kɛ? «Quel travail fait-il ?» (What work does he do?)
⇒ joli ? «combien ?» (How many?)
A yé joli bɔ́? «Combien a-t-il enlevé ?» (How many did he remove?)
⇒ jɔ́ɔn ? (sg.) «qui ?» (who?)
Jɔ́ɔn kúmana? «Qui a parlé ?» (Who spoke?)
⇒ jɔ́ɔnw ? (pl.) «qui ?» (who - plural?)
Jɔɔnw kúnana? «Qui sont ceux qui ont parlé ?» (Who are they who spoke?)
⇒ júman (sg.) «lequel, laquelle, quel, quelle» (which)
Faní júmàn túnuna? «Quel habit est perdu ?» (Which article of clothing is lost?)
⇒ júmanw (pl.) «lesquels, lesquelles, quels, quelles»
Faní jumanw túnuna? «Quels habits sont perdus ?» (Which articles of clothing are lost?)
⇒ di «comment, quoi, qu-est-ce que?» (how, what, what is it?)
Moussa kó di? «Que a dit Moussa ?» (What did Moussa say?)
Ń b'á kɛ́ di? «Comment vais-je faire ?» (How will I do it?)
3.3 Demonstrative pronouns
⇒ nin (sg.) «ce, cet, cette; celui-ci, celle-ci» (this)
A yé nín san kúnù. «Il a acheté celui-ci hier.» (He bought this yesterday.)
⇒ nunú (pl.) «ces, ceux-ci, celles-ci» (these)
A yé nunú san kúnù. «Il a acheté ceux-ci hier.» (He bought these yesterday.)
3.4 Indefinite pronouns
⇒ dɔ́ (sg.) «certain, quelque» (certain, some)
A yé dɔ́ san. «Il / elle en a acheté.» (He/she bought a certain one.)
⇒ dɔ́w (pl.) «certains, d'autres» (certain ones, of them)
A yé dɔ́w san. «Il / elle a acheté certains.» (He/she bought certain ones.)
3.5 The pronoun of totality
⇒ bɛ́ɛ «tout, tous, toute, toutes» (all)
A yé wári bɛ́ɛ ta. «Il a pris tout l'argent.» (He took all the money.)
Bɛ́ɛ bí kúmana. «Tous sont en train de parler.» (Everyone is talking.)
3.6 Possessive pronouns
⇒ táa (sg.) «appartient à» (belong to)
Ńne táa lo. «C'est à moi.» (It is mine.)
tááw (pl.) «appartiennent à» (they belong to)
3.7 Relative pronouns
⇒ mín (sg.) «qui, que, lequel, laquelle» (who, that)
Musó mín naná .... «La femme qui est venue ... » (The woman who came...)
⇒ minw (pl.) «lesquels, lesquelles» (those)
Musó mínw naná ... «Les femmes qui sont venues ... » (The women who came...)
4. The order of words
4.1 Intransltive clauses
⇒ Subject + verb
Yiri benna. «L'arbre est tombé.» (The tree fell.)
⇒ Subject + verb + complement
Musa dogora boon kɔnɔ. «Moussa s'est caché dans la maison.» (Moussa hid behind the house.)
4.2 Transitive clauses
⇒ Subject + object + verb (S+O+V)
Baba ye fani feere. «Papa a vendu un habit.» (Papa sold an article of clothing.
/papa/passé/habit/vendre
5. Verb markings
5.1 Infinitive verb marking
"ka" is the infinitive marking, and carries a low tone.
ka taga «aller» (to go); ka kuma «parler» (to speak); ka wari di «donner de l'argent» (to give money); k'a fɔ «le dire» (to say it)
Dans une succession d'actions à sujet commun, «ka» sert de lien entre les verbes.
A tagamana ka ben, ka wili, ka boli.
«Il (ou elle) a marché, est tombé, s'est levé, a couru.» (He/she walked, fell, got up, and ran.)
5.2 The affirmative and negation
The affirmative verbal suffix is either -ra, -la or -na (after a nasal consonant)
Fati donna soo kɔnɔ. «Fati est rentrée dans la maison.» (Fati returned to the house.)
For the previous examples, the negation is expressed with "má" followed by the infinitive form of the verb. "má" occurs before the verb.
Fati ma don soo kɔnɔ. «Fati n'est pas rentrée dans la maison.» (Fati has not returned to the house.)
Negation of the completive/progressive or habitual is "tí".
négation: A tí malo dumu. «Il ne mange pas du riz.» (He is not eating rice.)
The particule "yé" indicates the completive affirmative (past tense)
Negation: Baba má fani feere. «Papa n'a pas vendu un habit.» (Papa has not sold the article of clothing.)
The future marker is "bínà" for the affirmative and "tínà" for the negation.
Negation: A tina malo dumu. « Il ne mangera pas du riz.» (He will not eat rice.)
5.3 Aspect
The completive aspect and the incompletive aspect are expressed by the different verb markers.
5.3.1 Completive aspect of intransitive verbs
The completive aspect of intransitive verbs is indicated by the markers "-ra", "-la", "-na" for the affirmative, and "má" for the negative.
5.3.2 The completive aspect of transitive verbs
The completive (past tense) of transitive verbs is indicated by the marker "yé" for the affirmative of the past and by "má" for the negative:
Musa ma woro san. «Moussa n'a pas acheté de la viande.» (Moussa did not buy meat.)
5.3.3 Incompletive aspect of intransitive and transitive verbs
The incompletive aspects of intransitive and transitive verbs are marked by bi / ti:
bi ...-ra /-la /-na
ti ... -ra /-la/-na
bínà / tínà
ká / kánà
Examples:
⇒ The incompletive / progressive aspects of intransitive verbs:
Aff.: Musa bi bɔra. «Moussa est en train de sortir.» (Moussa is leaving.)
Nég: Musa ti bɔra. «Moussa n'est pas en train de sortir.» (Moussa is not leaving.)
Aff.: Fati bi tɔɔrɔla. «Fati est en train de souffrir.» (Fati is suffering.)
Nég: Fati ti tɔɔrɔla. «Fati n'est pas en train de souffrir.» (Fati is not suffering.)
Aff.: Zan bi nana. «Jean est en train de venir.» (John is coming.)
Nég: Zan ti nana. «Jean n'est pas en train de venir.» (John is not coming.)
⇒ Incompletive aspect of intransitive (habitual) verbs
Aff.: Zan bi na. «Jean a l'habitude de venir.» (John has a habit of coming.)
Nég.: Zan ti na. «Jean n'a pas l'habitude de venir.» (John does not have a habit of coming.)
⇒ Incompletive aspect of intransitive (future) verbs
Aff.: Án bina bɔ. «Nous sortirons.» (We will leave.)
Nég: Án tina bɔ. «Nous ne sortirons pas.» (We will not leave.)
⇒ Incompletive aspect of intransitive (projective) verbs
Aff.: A ko Sita ka na. «Il dit à Sita de venir.» (He tells Sita to come.)
Nég.: A ko Sita kana na. «Il dit à Sita de ne pas venir.» (He tells Sita not to come.)
⇒ Incompletive aspect of transitive verbs (progressive)
Aff.: Musa bi sogo feerera. «Moussa est en train de vendre de la viande.» (Moussa is selling the meat.)
Nég.: Musa ti sogo feererá. «Moussa n'est pas en train de vendre de la viande.» (Moussa is not selling the meat.)
Aff.: Musa bi woro sanná. «Moussa est en train d'acheter une noix de cola.» (Moussa is buying the cola nuts.)
Nég.: Musa ti wogo sanná. «Moussa n'est pas en train d'acheter une noix de cola.» (Moussa is not buying the cola nuts.)
⇒ Incompletive aspect of transitive verbs (future)
Aff.: Musa bínà sogo feere. «Moussa vendra de la viande.» (Moussa will sell the meat.)
Nég.: Musa tínà sogo feere. «Moussa ne vendra pas de la viande.» (Moussa will not sell the meat.)
5.4 Other verb markings
5.4.1 The markers used for blessings
In Dioula the markers used for blessings are "ká" for the affirmative and "kánà"in the negative.
Affirmative: Ala ka baraka don deen na. «Que Dieu bénisse l'enfant.» (God bless the child.)
Negative: Ala kana baraka don soon na. «Que dieu ne bénisse pas le voleur.» (God does not bless the thief.)
5.4.2 The inactual marker
The inactual marker in Dioula is "tun", which is used with completive or incompletive verbs.
When the tone following the marker "tun" is high, the marker will have a low tone.
Affirmative: Musa tun tɔɔrɔra. «Moussa avait souffert.» (Moussa has suffered.)
Negative: Musa tun ma tɔɔrɔ. «Moussa n'avait pas souffert.» (Moussa has not suffered.)
When the tone following the "tun" is low, the marker will have a rising tone.
A tun kalanna. «Il était instruit.» (He was taught.)
5.5 The imperative
The imperative verbal aspect is used for commands. In Dioula, this is manifested by a special intonation pattern.
⇒ 5.5.1 The imperative form of the second person singular.
In Dioula, the imperative verb form of the second person singular in the affirmative occurs without a subject or an affirmative marker, while the negative is conjugated with the marker "kánà», for both intransitive and transitive verbs.
Affirmative: Negative:
Wíli ! «Lève-toi !» (Get up!) Kánà wíli ! «Ne te lève pas !» (Do not get up!)
Jíi min ! «Bois l'eau !» (Drink the water.) Kánà jíi min ! «Ne bois pas l'eau !» (Do not drink the water.)
⇒ 5.5.2 The imperative form of the first person plural
The verbs that are conjugated with "ká" indicate the first person plural, for both the intransitive as well as the transitive forms.
Affirmative: Negative:
Án ká sigi ! «Asseyons-nous !» (Let us sit down!) Án kánà sigi! «Ne nous asseyons pas !» (Let's not sit down!)
Án ká jíi min ! «Buvons l'eau !» (Let us drink water!) Ám kánà jíi min ! «Ne buvons pas l'eau !» (Let us not drink water!)
⇒ 5.5.3 The second person plural form
In Dioula, both intransitive and transitive verbs use the imperative marker "yé" in the second person plural form.
Á yé sigi ! « Asseyez-vous !» (You sit down!) Á kánà sigi ! «Ne vous asseyez pas !» (You do not sit!)
Á yé jíi min ! «Buvez l'eau !» (You drink the water!) Á kánà jíi min ! «Ne buvez pas l'eau !» (You do not drink the water!)
5.6 Verbes serving as a qualifier
5.6.1 The affirmative and negative forms of verbs serving as a qualifier
The affirmative form of verbs acting as a qualifier are preceded by the mark "ká". (The high tone distinguishes that marker from the infinitive marker "kà" which carries a low tone.) The negative marker pour qualifier verbs is "mán". See the following examples:
Affirmative: Negative:
Sogo ká di. «La viande est bonne.» (The meat is good.) Sogo mán di. «La viande n'est pas bonne.» (The meat is not good.)
Wari ká ca. «L'argent est beaucoup.» (The money is abundant.) Wari mán ca. «L'argent n'est pas beaucoup.» (The money is not abundant.)
Note: The form of the marker "mán" depends on the context. The marker is manifested by "má" when it is preceded by a verb beginning with a nasal consonant.
Wari má ɲi. «L'argent n'est pas une bonne chose.» (The money is not a good thing.)
5.6.2 Derived forms of verbs that serve as qualifiers
Verbs can be derived by the suffix "man" to serve as qualifiers.
caman «beaucoup» (much); diman «bon» (good); duman «profond» (deep); kɔrɔman «âgé» (aged), etc.
Verbs acting as qualifers can also be derived by the suffix "ya", to give the nouns the notion of abstract.
bonya «grosseur» (fattening); diya «goût» (taste); dɔgɔya «petitesse» (smallness); dunya «profondeur» (depth), etc.